# NutraSafe - Full Content

> UK food scanner and tracker (iOS). Scan supermarket barcodes for ingredients, additives, E-numbers and allergens; log calories, macros, vitamins and minerals against UK Reference Nutrient Intakes; log meals and reactions to spot triggers. Free to download; NutraSafe Pro is £3.99/month or £34.99/year.

This file contains the full text of NutraSafe's reference content for AI ingestion. The largest body is a plain-English database of 466 E-numbers and food additives used on UK food labels. Regulatory framing is UK-first (FSA, FSS, NHS, EFSA, WHO/IARC, SACN), with UK Reference Nutrient Intakes for vitamins and minerals. Food coverage spans Tesco, Sainsbury's, Asda, Morrisons, Aldi, Lidl, M&S, Waitrose and Co-op own-brands plus the brands they stock.

## What the app does

- Food scanner: scan any UK barcode for ingredients, additives, E-numbers, allergens and nutrition. Barcode scanning is on the free tier.
- Food and calorie tracker: log meals, calories and macros off UK labels; 25 logs/day on free.
- Additives: names every additive on a scanned pack in plain English. Of 466 catalogued additives, the minority with published evidence carry a sourced health-concern line; the rest are identity only.
- Vitamins and minerals: 14 vitamins and 13 minerals tracked against UK NRVs (NutraSafe Pro).
- Reactions: log how you felt after eating to spot patterns to take to a GP or dietitian (the app does not diagnose).
- Also: intermittent fasting timer, workout tracker, AI meal scan and AI nutrition coach (Pro).

## Pricing

- Free: up to 25 food logs/day, barcode scanning with per-product processing grade, up to 5 visible reactions, public E-number lookup.
- NutraSafe Pro (£3.99/month or £34.99/year, iOS): unlimited logs, AI Coach, AI meal scan, allergen warning detail, fasting, workouts, suspected-triggers analysis, vitamins and minerals vs UK NRVs, processed-food and NRV insights.

## Editorial standard

Every claim is verified against the shipped product. The app avoids reassurance language ("safe", "fine") around additives: it publishes what published science says, with regulatory framing (FSA, EFSA, WHO/IARC, NHS, SACN) and named sources. Allergen reporting is scoped to "the ingredients we have", never "this product is allergen-free". It is a tracking tool, not a substitute for a GP or registered dietitian.

## The full UK E-number and additive database (466 entries)

Each entry: what the additive is, where you see it on UK labels, what the research says (where there is published evidence), and the regulatory source. Browse and search the live version at https://nutrasafe.co.uk/e-numbers (each additive has its own anchor, e.g. https://nutrasafe.co.uk/e-numbers#E102).

### E100 - Curcumin (Colour)
A yellow colour extracted from turmeric root and crystallised to concentrate the curcumin pigment.
Where you see it. Mustard, margarine, cheese, soups, curries, confectionery and some soft drinks.
Why it's used. Cheapest natural yellow at scale, extracted from turmeric rhizome. Heat- and pH-stable for curries, mustards and dairy; lets brands avoid the E102 warning label.

### E101 - Riboflavin (Other)
B-vitamin used as a yellow colour and fortifier.
Where you see it. Adds yellow-orange shade and B2 to cereals, pasta and dairy.
Why it's used. Cheap fermentation-derived yellow with a B2-fortification credit. Used in cereals, pasta and dairy without the warning label E102 tartrazine carries.

### E101a - Riboflavin-5'-phosphate (Other)
Active phosphate form of vitamin B2.
Where you see it. Yellow colour and B2 fortifier; better water solubility than E101.
Why it's used. More soluble form of vitamin B2 (riboflavin). Picked over E101 in liquid and clear beverages where solubility matters.

### E102 - Tartrazine (Colour) · Southampton Six
A synthetic yellow azo dye, also called Tartrazine. Coal-tar-derived.
Where you see it. Some imported sweets, drinks, baked goods, custards and packet desserts. Most major UK brands reformulated to remove it after 2009.
What the research says. One of the Southampton Six colours. UK products containing E102 must carry the warning "May have an adverse effect on activity and attention in children."
Sources: FSA Southampton study (2007) · UK retained EU Reg 1333/2008

### E104 - Quinoline Yellow (Colour) · Southampton Six
A synthetic yellow dye called Quinoline Yellow.
Where you see it. Imported sweets, fizzy drinks, ice cream, and some bakery items. Banned in food in the US and Australia.
What the research says. One of the Southampton Six. Mandatory hyperactivity warning on UK labels. Linked to asthma and behavioural effects in the Southampton study.
Sources: FSA Southampton study (2007) · UK retained EU Reg 1333/2008

### E107 - Yellow 2G (Colour)
Synthetic yellow azo dye.
Where you see it. Was used in sausages and processed meats; now withdrawn.
What the research says. EU rule 1333/2008 did not relist E107 in the permitted-additives annex; effectively banned across member states.
Sources: JECFA (1984) · EU (2008) · McCann (2007)

### E110 - Sunset Yellow (Colour) · Southampton Six
A synthetic orange-yellow azo dye called Sunset Yellow.
Where you see it. Imported sweets and drinks, some bakery, jelly and dessert mixes.
What the research says. One of the Southampton Six. Mandatory UK hyperactivity warning. EFSA temporarily reduced its ADI in 2009 then restored it in 2014 after further review.
Sources: FSA Southampton study (2007) · EFSA 2014 re-evaluation

### E116 - Brilliant Yellow (Colour) · Banned in UK food
Synthetic yellow azo dye.
Where you see it. Was used in sweets and drinks; not authorised in UK/EU food.
What the research says. EU rule 1129/2011 colour annex does not include E116; not authorised for food in current EU/UK regulation.
Sources: EU (2011) · McCann (2007)

### E120 - Cochineal (Colour)
A red colour extracted from cochineal insects, so it is not vegetarian or vegan.
Where you see it. Yoghurts, fruit drinks, sweets, processed meats and some bakery fillings.
What the research says. EFSA flagged it as an allergen: residual insect protein has caused hives and, rarely, anaphylaxis. The US requires it to be named on the label rather than hidden as "colour".
Sources: EFSA re-evaluation (2015) · FDA labelling rule (2009)

### E122 - Carmoisine (Colour) · Southampton Six
A synthetic red azo dye called Carmoisine (Azorubine).
Where you see it. Imported sweets, marzipan, jellies, some flavoured yoghurts and drinks.
What the research says. One of the Southampton Six. UK products carrying it must show the hyperactivity warning. Banned in food in the US, Norway, Sweden, Austria and Japan.
Sources: FSA Southampton study (2007) · UK retained EU Reg 1333/2008

### E123 - Amaranth (Colour) · IARC Group 2B
Synthetic dark red azo dye.
Where you see it. Restricted to aperitif wines and fish-roe colouring in the UK/EU.
What the research says. Banned in the US since 1976 after rat tumour studies.
Sources: FDA (1976) · EFSA (2010) · EU (2011) · McCann (2007)

### E124 - Ponceau 4R (Colour) · Southampton Six
A synthetic red azo dye called Ponceau 4R.
Where you see it. Some imported sweets, cured meats, jellies, dessert mixes and packet sauces.
What the research says. One of the Southampton Six. UK hyperactivity warning required. Not permitted as a food additive in the US.
Sources: FSA Southampton study (2007) · UK retained EU Reg 1333/2008

### E125 - Ponceau SX (Colour) · Banned in UK food
Synthetic red azo dye.
Where you see it. Was used in confectionery; not authorised in UK/EU food.
What the research says. Banned in the US since 1976 over toxicity data; withdrawn from UK and EU food. May still appear on imports from outside the EU.
Sources: EU (2011) · JECFA (1965)

### E126 - Ponceau 6R (Colour) · Banned in UK food
Synthetic red azo dye.
Where you see it. Was used in sweets; not authorised in UK/EU food.
What the research says. E126 not listed in the EU additive annex; not authorised for food use.
Sources: EU (2011) · McCann (2007)

### E127 - Erythrosine (Colour)
Synthetic iodinated red xanthene dye.
Where you see it. Restricted to cocktail and candied cherries in the UK/EU.
What the research says. Linked to thyroid effects in animal studies; banned from US food from January 2025.
Sources: FDA (1990) · FDA (2025) · EFSA (2011) · EU (2011)

### E128 - Red 2G (Colour) · Banned in UK food
Synthetic red azo dye.
Where you see it. Was used in British sausages and burger meat; now banned.
What the research says. Banned in 2007, breaks down to a substance that can damage DNA and cause cancer. Withdrawn from UK and EU food. Can still appear on imports from outside the EU, check the label.
Sources: EFSA (2007) · EU (2007)

### E129 - Allura Red (Colour) · Southampton Six
A synthetic red azo dye called Allura Red AC (Red 40 in the US).
Where you see it. Imported sweets, snacks, fizzy drinks, cake icings and dessert mixes. The US permits it without a warning; UK products require the hyperactivity warning.
What the research says. One of the Southampton Six. California considered a Prop 65 listing in 2022; assessment is ongoing.
Sources: FSA Southampton study (2007) · CA OEHHA Prop 65 assessment

### E130 - Indanthrene blue RS (Colour) · Banned in UK food
Synthetic blue anthraquinone dye.
Where you see it. Was used in confectionery; not authorised in UK/EU food.
Why it's used. Vat dye, mainly historical use. Not authorised in current EU food. Patent Blue V (E131) and Brilliant Blue (E133) cover the modern synthetic-blue niche.

### E131 - Patent Blue V (Colour)
A synthetic blue dye, also used as a surgical marker dye given by injection.
Where you see it. Sugar-coated sweets, some drinks and desserts; often blended to make greens.
What the research says. Not approved for food in the US. As an injected medical dye it can cause allergic reactions, and EFSA treats it as a possible skin sensitiser and irritant. Children at the top of the range can exceed its acceptable daily intake.
Sources: EFSA re-evaluation (2013) · FDA

### E132 - Indigo carmine (Colour)
A synthetic blue dye (indigotine). Despite the name "indigo carmine", it is unrelated to insect-derived carmine (E120).
Where you see it. Confectionery, ice cream, biscuits and soft drinks; blended for greens and purples.
What the research says. Not one of the six colours that carry the UK hyperactivity warning. The reactions on record involve its use as an injected medical dye, not food; EFSA found no intolerance reports from eating it.
Sources: EFSA re-evaluation (2014, reaffirmed 2023)

### E133 - Brilliant Blue (Colour)
A synthetic blue dye (Brilliant Blue FCF). A triarylmethane dye, not an azo dye.
Where you see it. Sweets, ice lollies, soft drinks, icings and jellies.
Why it's used. Cheap synthetic blue. Heat- and light-stable across drinks, ice cream and confectionery where natural blues fade. Mixed with E102 it gives standard sweets-aisle 'green'.

### E140 - Chlorophyll (Colour)
Natural green pigment from plants.
Where you see it. Same molecule that makes leaves green; used in pasta, oils and sweets.
What the research says. Review noted plain chlorophyll breaks down with heat and acid; copper version preferred for stability.
Sources: EFSA (2015) · EU (2011) · Solymosi (2014)

### E141 - Copper chlorophyll complexes (Colour)
A green colour made by stabilising chlorophyll with copper.
Where you see it. Processed peas, green sauces, confectionery, ice cream and some liqueurs.
What the research says. EFSA’s 2015 review recommended withdrawing its acceptable daily intake, not over evidence of harm, but because the data needed to assess it were missing. As a colour it is a minor contributor to copper intake.
Sources: EFSA re-evaluation (2015)

### E142 - Green S (Colour)
Synthetic green triarylmethane dye.
Where you see it. Colours mint sauces, peas and ice cream green.
What the research says. Banned across the US, Canada, Japan and Nordic countries; allowed in UK/EU.
Sources: EFSA (2010) · EU (2011) · McCann (2007)

### E143 - Fast Green FCF (Colour) · Banned in UK food
Synthetic green triarylmethane dye.
Where you see it. Was used in canned peas and ice cream; not authorised in UK/EU food.
Why it's used. US-permitted synthetic green (FD&C Green 3). Not authorised in EU food, so encountered mainly on imported US products.

### E150 - Caramel (general) (Colour) · IARC Group 2B
Generic caramel-colour code; superseded by E150a-d.
Where you see it. Legacy code; modern labels use E150a (plain) through E150d (sulphite ammonia).
What the research says. Two of the four caramel types contain a possible carcinogen. E150c and E150d carry 4-MEI. E150a and E150b don't.
Sources: EFSA (2011) · EU (2012)

### E150a - Plain caramel (Colour)
Plain caramel colour, made by heating sugars without ammonium or sulphite compounds.
Where you see it. Spirits, beer, gravy, soy-style sauces, bakery and some soft drinks.
Why it's used. Kitchen-style caramel from heated sugar, no ammonia, no sulphite. The only caramel suitable for sulphite-allergic and asthmatic consumers.

### E150b - Caustic sulphite caramel (Colour)
Brown colour from sugar treated with caustic alkali.
Where you see it. Used in bakery, sauces and dark beers for the brown shade.
What the research says. E150b carries leftover sulphites; products above 10 mg/kg total sulphites must declare them as allergens.
Sources: EFSA (2011) · EU (2011) · Vally (2009)

### E150c - Ammonia caramel (Colour) · IARC Group 2B
Ammonia caramel (Class III), made by heating sugars with ammonium compounds.
Where you see it. Beer, gravy and gravy granules, sauces and dark bakery.
What the research says. EFSA set a tighter acceptable daily intake for this class than for the others, over uncertainty about effects on the immune system from a by-product (THI) found only in it. Like the cola caramel E150d, the ammonia process can also form trace 4-MEI.
Sources: EFSA re-evaluation (2011) · IARC Monograph 101 (2013, 4-MEI)

### E150d - Sulphite ammonia caramel (Colour) · IARC Group 2B
Class IV caramel colour, made by heating sugars with ammonium and sulphite compounds (the "ammonia sulphite" process).
Where you see it. Cola, brown malt drinks, dark soy sauces, some malt loaf and dark sauces.
What the research says. Production can yield trace 4-MEI, which IARC classes as Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic). California requires a Prop 65 warning when 4-MEI exceeds 29µg per day. Most major colas reformulated to stay below the threshold.
Sources: IARC Monograph 101 (2013) · CA Prop 65 (2011) · EFSA caramel ADI (2011)

### E151 - Brilliant Black BN (Colour)
Synthetic black diazo dye giving intense black to blue-black.
Where you see it. Colours sauces, desserts, sweets and some drinks black or brown.
What the research says. Children's intake can top the safety limit at the high end. An azo colour, though not one of the Southampton 6, so it carries no UK child-behaviour warning. EFSA found high-intake children could reach or pass the daily limit.
Sources: EFSA (2010) · FDA · EFSA (2015)

### E152 - Carbon Black (Colour)
Synthetic black pigment from incomplete combustion.
Where you see it. Was used in confectionery and cheese rinds; withdrawn.
Why it's used. Synthetic carbon-black pigment, banned in EU food since the 1980s over PAH contamination concerns. Replaced by vegetable carbon E153.

### E153 - Vegetable carbon (Colour)
A black colour made by charring plant material such as wood or coconut shell.
Where you see it. Liquorice and black sweets, novelty "charcoal" breads, cheese rinds and decorative coatings.
Why it's used. Cheap deep-black colour from carbonised plant material (coconut shells, peat). Standard for black liquorice, salty bread and goth-trend ice cream.

### E154 - Brown FK (Colour)
Synthetic brown azo-dye mixture.
Where you see it. Restricted to colouring kippers brown in the UK only.
What the research says. UK-only colour; toxicology data was too thin for a daily intake limit to be set. Used in kippers and smoked fish. Not authorised anywhere else in Europe.
Sources: EFSA (2010) · EU (2014)

### E155 - Brown HT (Colour)
Synthetic brown azo dye.
Where you see it. Colours chocolate-flavoured biscuits and brown sauces.
What the research says. Linked to hyperactivity in children, pack carries the warning by law. Foods containing it must display 'may have an adverse effect on activity and attention in children.'
Sources: EFSA (2010) · McCann (2007) · EU (2008) · FSA (2008) · EFSA (2018)

### E160 - Carotenes (mixed) (Colour)
Mixed carotenoid pigments from plants.
Where you see it. Adds yellow-orange colour to margarine, drinks and snacks.
Why it's used. Plant carotenoid mix from carrots, palm oil and algae, orange-yellow with vitamin A activity. 'Natural' labelling option.

### E160a - Beta-carotene (Colour)
Carotenes, a yellow-orange colour, also a source of vitamin A; either plant-extracted or made synthetically.
Where you see it. Margarine and spreads, cheese, soft drinks, desserts and baked goods.
Why it's used. Cheap dual-purpose colour and pre-vitamin A from palm-fruit oil byproduct. Yellow-orange in margarine, drinks and cheese, no synthetic-colour warning.

### E160b - Annatto (Colour)
Annatto, an orange-red colour from the seeds of the achiote tree.
Where you see it. Coloured cheeses (Red Leicester, some cheddar), smoked fish, crisps, cereals and custard.
What the research says. A recognised, if uncommon, trigger of hives and rarely anaphylaxis in sensitive people, though it is not one of the 14 allergens UK law requires on labels. EFSA set separate limits for its two pigments and found the tighter one (norbixin) can be exceeded at high intake.
Sources: EFSA re-evaluation (2016)

### E160c - Paprika extract (Colour)
Carotenoid pigment from sweet red peppers.
Where you see it. Colours cheese, crisps, sauces and processed meats orange-red.
Why it's used. Only natural orange-red that survives heat without fading. Used in cheese rind, sausages and snacks; escapes the colour-warning label.

### E160d - Lycopene (Colour)
Red carotenoid pigment from tomatoes.
Where you see it. Colours sauces, drinks and confectionery red-orange.
What the research says. Reviews of multiple studies: dietary lycopene weakly linked to lower prostate cancer risk; no cause-and-effect claim.
Sources: EFSA (2008) · JECFA (1981) · Etminan (2004) · EU (2011)

### E160e - Beta-apo-8'-carotenal (Colour)
Synthetic carotenoid; orange-red pigment.
Where you see it. Colours sauces, soups, soft drinks and ice cream orange.
Why it's used. Synthetic orange-red carotenoid, more colour-intense per gram than beta-carotene and stable in acidic drinks. Used in soft drinks, sauces and processed cheese.

### E160f - Ethyl ester of beta-apo-8'-carotenoic acid (Colour)
Synthetic orange-yellow colour related to beta-carotene.
Where you see it. Adds yellow-orange colour to drinks, dressings and confectionery.
Why it's used. Yellow synthetic carotenoid. EU removed authorisation in 2014 because it offered no advantage over E160a (beta-carotene) and E160e (apocarotenal).

### E161b - Lutein (Colour)
Yellow carotenoid from marigold petals.
Where you see it. Colours pasta, soups and sauces yellow; same pigment as in egg yolks.
Why it's used. Marigold-extract yellow pigment. Less colour-intense than synthetic yellows but lets brands put 'natural colour' on the label. Macular-eye-health nutrient claim.

### E161g - Canthaxanthin (Colour)
Synthetic red-orange carotenoid.
Where you see it. Used in farmed-fish feed and small range of foods to add red colour.
Why it's used. Synthetic deep-orange carotenoid. EU food use limited to specific sausages; far more common in animal feed where it colours egg yolk and farmed-fish flesh.

### E161h - Zeaxanthin (Colour)
Yellow carotenoid pigment from corn and marigold.
Where you see it. Colours snacks, drinks and supplements; same pigment as in egg yolks.
Why it's used. Yellow pigment from corn and marigold. Often paired with lutein E161b for 'natural' yellow plus the macular-eye-health story. 'Clean label' choice.

### E162 - Beetroot Red (Colour)
Natural red colour extracted from beetroot.
Where you see it. Colours yoghurts, sweets and ice cream pink or red.
Why it's used. Cheapest natural pink/red, pressed beetroot juice concentrate. Heat-sensitive so used in cold or short-bake products: ice cream, yoghurt, sweets.

### E163 - Anthocyanins (Colour)
Plant flavonoid pigments giving berries their colour.
Where you see it. Used as natural colouring in drinks, sweets and dairy.
Why it's used. Natural reds, bright red below pH 4, blue-purple at neutral, colourless above 7. Cheaper than E120 cochineal in soft drinks and red yoghurts.

### E163a - Cyanidin (Colour)
Anthocyanin pigment from berries and red cabbage.
Where you see it. Adds red-purple colour to drinks, sweets and yoghurts.
Why it's used. Anthocyanin pigment from blackcurrant, elderberry and red cabbage. Sub-code under E163 used when cyanidin is the main pigment; lets brands carry a 'natural' claim.

### E163b - Delphinidin (Colour)
Blue-violet anthocyanin pigment from grape skins.
Where you see it. Adds purple-blue colour to drinks and confectionery.
Why it's used. Blue-purple anthocyanin from blueberries, aubergine skin and grape. Used when the brand wants a blue-leaning natural shade without resorting to synthetic E133.

### E163c - Malvidin (Colour)
Anthocyanin pigment from red grapes.
Where you see it. Adds purple-red colour to drinks and dairy.
Why it's used. Dominant anthocyanin in red wine and dark grape skin. Sub-code rarely seen on labels, most products simply declare 'E163 anthocyanins'.

### E163d - Pelargonidin (Colour)
Anthocyanin pigment from strawberries and radishes.
Where you see it. Adds orange-red colour to drinks and confectionery.
Why it's used. Orange-red anthocyanin from strawberries, raspberries and red radish. Used in anthocyanin extracts where a strawberry-leaning red is needed.

### E163e - Peonidin (Colour)
Anthocyanin pigment from cranberries and cherries.
Where you see it. Adds red-pink colour to drinks and yoghurts.
Why it's used. Methylated anthocyanin from cranberry, plum and cherry. Spec sub-code; rarely declared separately on labels. Same regulatory treatment as the rest of E163.

### E163f - Petunidin (Colour)
Anthocyanin pigment from blueberries and blackcurrants.
Where you see it. Adds purple-blue colour to drinks and confectionery.
Why it's used. Methylated anthocyanin from grape and bilberry. Spec sub-code under E163; commercially encountered only in concentrated grape-skin or berry-skin extracts.

### E164 - Saffron (Colour)
Golden-yellow pigment from saffron crocus stigmas.
Where you see it. Colours rice, paella, baked goods and confectionery.
Why it's used. Yellow-orange colour from saffron stigmas. Premium-priced vs E100 curcumin or synthetic yellows; used when the brand wants the saffron flavour-and-colour pair.

### E166 - Sandalwood (Colour) · Banned in UK food
Red pigment from sandalwood heartwood.
Where you see it. Was used as a red colour in some traditional foods.
Why it's used. Red sandalwood extract. Not authorised as a food colour in current EU food; legacy code only.

### E170 - Calcium carbonate (Other)
Powdered chalk, same calcium your bones need.
Where you see it. Calcium fortifier in flour, anti-caking agent in powders.
Why it's used. Cheapest calcium source by far, ground limestone or chalk. Used as the calcium in fortified plant milks and breakfast cereals; also a white pigment.

### E170a - Calcium carbonate (Other)
Mineral calcium salt; the same compound as in chalk.
Where you see it. Calcium fortifier in flour and plant milks; anti-caking in powders.
Why it's used. Cheap, food-grade chalk. Doubles as anti-caking agent, firming salt, neutraliser and calcium fortifier. The bright-white pigment on chewing-gum centres.

### E170b - Calcium hydrogen carbonate (Other)
Calcium-hydrogen carbonate salt.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator and calcium fortifier in plant milks.
Why it's used. Calcium bicarbonate, used as a mineralising and pH-buffering salt in bottled water and antacid tablets. Niche food use; rare on UK retail labels.

### E171 - Titanium dioxide (Colour)
Titanium dioxide. A white opacifier and brightener.
Where you see it. Whitens chewing gum, sweets, icings and white-coated tablets. The EU banned it in food in 2022; Great Britain kept it permitted, so it can still appear on a UK label, and it stays in toothpaste and some medicines.
What the research says. EFSA concluded in 2021 it could no longer rule out that the nanoparticles damage DNA, so it should not be used in food. The EU removed it from the permitted list (Regulation 2022/63), but Great Britain has kept it permitted while the FSA reviews it; many brands reformulated to drop it.
Sources: EFSA 2021 re-evaluation · EU Reg 2022/63 · UK FSA review (ongoing)

### E172 - Iron oxides (Colour)
Iron oxides and hydroxides, inorganic pigments giving yellow, red, brown and black shades.
Where you see it. Cake and sugar decorations, confectionery coatings, some sausage casings and tablet coatings.
Why it's used. Cheap, intensely stable mineral pigments, red, yellow and black. Used in coatings, cake decoration, sausage casings and tablet shells.

### E172a - Red iron oxide (Colour)
Mineral red iron-oxide pigment.
Where you see it. Adds red colour to cake decorations, sweets and pet-food coatings.
Why it's used. Synthetic red iron-oxide pigment, cheaper and more consistent than natural red ochre. Used for cake decoration, pastilles, salami casings and tablet coatings.

### E172b - Yellow iron oxide (Colour)
Mineral yellow iron-oxide pigment.
Where you see it. Adds yellow colour to cake decorations and sugar work.
Why it's used. Yellow iron-oxide pigment, heat-stable for surface coatings, decorative items and tablet shells where plant colours would fade.

### E172c - Black iron oxide (Colour)
Mineral black iron-oxide pigment.
Where you see it. Adds black colour to cake decorations and confectionery shells.
Why it's used. Black iron-oxide pigment. Standard for tablet coatings, sausage casings and decorative confectionery where vegetable carbon E153 is not opaque enough.

### E173 - Aluminium (Colour)
Metallic aluminium powder or leaf.
Where you see it. Decorative coating on cake decorations and sugared confectionery.
What the research says. Aluminium builds up in bone and tissues with regular intake.
Sources: EFSA (2008) · EU (2012) · EFSA (2014)

### E174 - Silver (Colour)
Metallic silver leaf or powder.
Where you see it. Decorative coating on cake decorations, sweets and liqueurs.
Why it's used. Metallic silver leaf for premium cake decoration and sugar-craft balls. Surface use only; doesn't release silver into the body.

### E175 - Gold (Colour)
Edible gold leaf or powder.
Where you see it. Luxury decoration on cake toppers, chocolates and liqueurs.
Why it's used. Edible gold leaf and powder for premium decoration on chocolates, pastries and luxury drinks. Passes through unreactive, picked for looks, not function.

### E180 - Litholrubine BK (Colour)
Synthetic red azo dye.
Where you see it. Restricted to colouring the rind of hard cheeses such as Edam.
What the research says. EU allows E180 only on the edible surface of hard cheeses at category-specific limits.
Sources: EFSA (2010) · EU (2011) · McCann (2007)

### E181 - Tannic acid (Other)
Plant polyphenol mixture from oak galls and tea.
Where you see it. Clarifies wine and beer; flavour modifier in some sauces.
Why it's used. Plant tannin from gallnuts or oak. Used as a clarifier in beer and wine and as an astringent in flavour bases.

### E182 - Orcein (Colour) · Banned in UK food
Purple-red dye from lichens.
Where you see it. Niche use as a histological stain; rarely used in food now.
What the research says. Not currently authorised as a food colour in the UK/EU.
Sources: EU (2011)

### E200 - Sorbic acid (Preservative)
Sorbic acid, a preservative that stops moulds and yeasts growing.
Where you see it. Cheese, baked goods, dried fruit, dips and some drinks.
Why it's used. Parent acid of E202 sorbate. Lower water-solubility than the K-salt, preferred in oil-rich or low-moisture products.

### E202 - Potassium sorbate (Preservative)
Potassium sorbate, the most common and most water-soluble form of sorbic acid preservative.
Where you see it. Cheese, baked goods, wine, drinks, dips and dressings.
Why it's used. Most cost-effective mould preventer at pH 3-6.5. Standard for cheese, wine, baked goods. Doesn't off-gas like benzoate.

### E203 - Calcium sorbate (Preservative)
Calcium salt of sorbic acid; a mould and yeast preventer.
Where you see it. Stops mould in cheese, baked goods and dressings.
What the research says. EU food regulator (EFSA) left calcium sorbate out of the sorbates group intake limit because its own genotoxicity data were missing.
Sources: EFSA (2015) · EFSA (2019)

### E209 - Heptylparaben (Preservative) · Banned in UK food
Long-chain paraben preservative.
Where you see it. Was used in low-alcohol beers; not currently authorised in UK/EU.
What the research says. Not authorised in UK/EU food.
Sources: EFSA (2004) · EU (2008)

### E210 - Benzoic acid (Preservative)
The parent acid of the benzoate preservatives.
Where you see it. Stops bacteria and fungi in acidic drinks, pickles and sauces.
What the research says. Forms trace benzene with vitamin C under heat or sunlight. In acidic drinks, vitamin C plus benzoate under heat or sunlight can form trace benzene; some products historically went over the drinking-water benzene limit.
Sources: EFSA (2002) · FDA (2007) · EFSA (2014)

### E211 - Sodium benzoate (Preservative)
A preservative, the sodium salt of benzoic acid, that stops yeasts and moulds growing in acidic foods.
Where you see it. Soft drinks, fruit juices, pickles, salad dressings and acidic sauces.
What the research says. In drinks that also contain vitamin C, benzoate can react to form trace benzene, more so with heat and light; UK and US surveys found a few products above drinking-water limits and those were reformulated. It was a fixed co-ingredient in the 2007 Southampton hyperactivity mixtures, but it is not one of the six warning-label colours.
Sources: EFSA re-evaluation (2016) · FSA benzene survey (2006) · FDA · Southampton study (2007)

### E212 - Potassium benzoate (Preservative)
Potassium salt of benzoic acid; an acidic-food preservative.
Where you see it. Stops bacteria and fungi in soft drinks, syrups and pickles.
What the research says. Forms trace benzene with vitamin C under heat or sunlight. In acidic drinks, vitamin C plus benzoate under heat or sunlight can form trace benzene; some products historically went over the drinking-water benzene limit.
Sources: EFSA (2002) · FDA (2007)

### E213 - Calcium benzoate (Preservative)
Calcium salt of benzoic acid; an acidic-food preservative.
Where you see it. Stops bacteria and fungi in acidic drinks and condiments.
What the research says. Forms trace benzene with vitamin C under heat or sunlight. In acidic drinks, vitamin C plus benzoate under heat or sunlight can form trace benzene; some products historically went over the drinking-water benzene limit.
Sources: EFSA (2002) · FDA (2007)

### E214 - Ethylparaben (Preservative)
Ethyl-form paraben preservative.
Where you see it. Stops moulds and bacteria in surface coatings, sauces and supplements.
Why it's used. Ethyl-form paraben. Broad-spectrum mould inhibitor in dried-meat coatings, sauces and confectionery. Retained in EU food after the 2006 paraben review.

### E215 - Sodium ethyl para-hydroxybenzoate (Preservative)
Sodium salt of ethylparaben; a soluble preservative.
Where you see it. Water-soluble paraben for moulds and bacteria in sauces and supplements.
Why it's used. Sodium form of ethylparaben, used where water-solubility matters. Sits in the same EU-retained methyl/ethyl paraben group as E214 and E218.

### E216 - Propylparaben (Preservative) · Banned in UK food
Propyl form of paraben preservative.
Where you see it. Was used as a preservative; withdrawn from UK/EU food in 2006.
What the research says. Withdrawn from UK and EU food over reproductive-toxicity signals in young animals. May still appear on imports from outside the EU.
Sources: Oishi (2002) · EFSA (2004) · EU (2006)

### E217 - Sodium propylparaben (Preservative) · Banned in UK food
Sodium salt of propylparaben.
Where you see it. Was used as a preservative; withdrawn from UK/EU food in 2006.
What the research says. Paraben preservative pulled from UK and EU food in 2006 over hormone-system concerns. May still appear on imported products from outside the UK and EU.
Sources: EFSA (2004) · EU (2006)

### E218 - Methylparaben (Preservative)
Paraben-family preservative.
Where you see it. Stops moulds and bacteria in baked goods, sauces and marinades.
What the research says. EU allows E218 in surface treatment of dried meats, sauces, dietary supplements and confectionery.
Sources: EFSA (2004) · Oishi (2002) · EU (2008)

### E219 - Sodium methylparaben (Preservative)
Sodium salt of methylparaben.
Where you see it. Stops moulds and bacteria in baked goods, sauces and marinades.
What the research says. Paraben preservative with hormone-disruption signals in animal studies. Sister parabens E216 and E217 were pulled from UK and EU food in 2006 over the same concern.
Sources: EFSA (2004) · EU (2008)

### E220 - Sulphur dioxide (Preservative)
Sulphur dioxide, a preservative and antioxidant that also stops browning. Heads the sulphite group (E220-E228).
Where you see it. Wine, dried fruit (notably dried apricots), sausages, fruit juices and pickles.
What the research says. One of the 14 allergens UK law requires on the label above 10mg/kg, because it can trigger asthma attacks in sensitive people. EFSA’s 2016 review set only a temporary acceptable daily intake and warned high consumers can exceed it.
Sources: EFSA re-evaluation (2016) · FSA allergen rules

### E221 - Sodium sulphite (Preservative)
Sulphite preservative.
Where you see it. Stops microbial growth in dried fruit and processed potatoes.
What the research says. Can trigger asthma. Triggers reactions in sulphite-sensitive people. Mandatory allergen-style label declaration in UK/EU.
Sources: Stevenson (1981) · FDA (1986) · EFSA (2016) · EU (2011) · EFSA (2022)

### E222 - Sodium hydrogen sulphite (Preservative)
Sulphite preservative; releases sulphur dioxide.
Where you see it. Preserves wine, fruit juice and dried fruit.
What the research says. Can trigger asthma. Triggers reactions in sulphite-sensitive people. Mandatory allergen-style label declaration in UK/EU.
Sources: Stevenson (1981) · FDA (1986) · EFSA (2016) · EU (2011) · EFSA (2022)

### E223 - Sodium metabisulphite (Preservative)
Sulphite preservative; releases sulphur dioxide.
Where you see it. Preserves wine, dried fruit and shrimp; stops browning.
What the research says. Can trigger asthma. Triggers reactions in sulphite-sensitive people, especially asthmatics. Mandatory allergen-style label declaration in UK/EU.
Sources: Stevenson (1981) · FDA (1986) · Vally (2009) · EFSA (2016) · EU (2011)

### E224 - Potassium metabisulphite (Preservative)
Sulphite preservative; releases sulphur dioxide.
Where you see it. Common winemaking preservative; stops oxidation and microbes.
What the research says. Can trigger asthma. Triggers reactions in sulphite-sensitive people. Mandatory allergen-style label declaration in UK/EU.
Sources: Stevenson (1981) · FDA (1986) · EFSA (2016) · EU (2011) · EFSA (2022)

### E225 - Potassium sulphite (Preservative)
Sulphite preservative.
Where you see it. Used in wine and fruit products to inhibit oxidation.
What the research says. Can trigger asthma. Triggers reactions in sulphite-sensitive people. Mandatory allergen-style label declaration in UK/EU.
Sources: Stevenson (1981) · FDA (1986) · EFSA (2016) · EU (2011) · EFSA (2022)

### E226 - Calcium sulphite (Preservative)
Calcium-sulphite preservative.
Where you see it. Preserves fruit, vegetables and beverages; firms canned vegetables.
What the research says. Can trigger asthma. Triggers reactions in sulphite-sensitive people. Mandatory allergen-style label declaration in UK/EU.
Sources: Stevenson (1981) · FDA (1986) · EFSA (2016) · EU (2011) · EFSA (2022)

### E227 - Calcium hydrogen sulphite (Preservative)
Calcium-sulphite preservative; releases sulphur dioxide.
Where you see it. Preserves and firms canned vegetables and tinned fruit.
What the research says. Can trigger asthma. Triggers reactions in sulphite-sensitive people. Mandatory allergen-style label declaration in UK/EU.
Sources: Stevenson (1981) · FDA (1986) · EFSA (2016) · EU (2011) · EFSA (2022)

### E228 - Potassium hydrogen sulphite (Preservative)
Sulphite preservative; releases sulphur dioxide.
Where you see it. Preserves wine and fruit products; stops oxidation and microbes.
What the research says. Can trigger asthma. Triggers reactions in sulphite-sensitive people. Mandatory allergen-style label declaration in UK/EU.
Sources: Stevenson (1981) · FDA (1986) · EFSA (2016) · EU (2011) · EFSA (2022)

### E229 - Calcium hydrogen sulphite (Preservative)
Calcium-form sulphite preservative.
Where you see it. Stops fermentation in wine and prevents browning in dried fruit.
What the research says. Sulphite preservative; can trigger asthma attacks in sulphite-sensitive people. Also linked to wheezing, hives and stomach upset in sensitive individuals. Labels must declare 'sulphites' above 10 mg/kg.
Sources: EFSA (2016) · Vally (2009) · EU (2011)

### E230 - Biphenyl (Preservative) · Banned in UK food
Synthetic surface fungicide for citrus skins.
Where you see it. Was used to treat citrus skins against mould; now banned.
What the research says. Banned in UK and EU food since 2003 over residue and toxicity concerns. Still used on citrus skins in some non-EU countries; wash imported fruit before peeling.
Sources: EFSA (2003) · EU (2003)

### E231 - Orthophenyl phenol (Preservative) · IARC Group 2B
Synthetic phenol; surface fungicide.
Where you see it. Sprayed onto citrus skins to stop mould during storage.
What the research says. Possibly cancer-causing; bladder-tumour signal in animal studies. Restricted to the wax on citrus skins in the UK and EU. Wash fruit before peeling.
Sources: EFSA (2003) · EU (2009) · Hiraga (1989)

### E232 - Sodium orthophenyl phenol (Preservative) · IARC Group 2B
Sodium salt of orthophenyl phenol; surface fungicide.
Where you see it. Sprayed onto citrus skins to stop mould during storage.
What the research says. Possibly cancer-causing; bladder-tumour signal in animal studies. Same concern as E231. Restricted to citrus skin treatment. Wash fruit before peeling.
Sources: EFSA (2003) · EU (2009)

### E233 - Thiabendazole (Preservative) · Banned in UK food
Synthetic anti-fungal compound.
Where you see it. Was used on citrus and banana skins; now removed from EU/UK food list.
Why it's used. Surface fungicide for bananas and citrus. EU food-additive use lapsed in 2003; controlled now as a pesticide residue.

### E234 - Nisin (Preservative)
Antimicrobial peptide from Lactococcus lactis.
Where you see it. Inhibits Listeria and Clostridium in processed cheese and meats.
Why it's used. Antibacterial peptide that kills Clostridium and Listeria in processed cheese, clotted cream and canned foods. Cuts the need for nitrite or pressure sterilisation.

### E235 - Natamycin (Preservative)
Antifungal compound from Streptomyces fermentation.
Where you see it. Surface treatment on cheese rinds and dry-cured sausages.
What the research says. Same opinion noted concern about keeping a clinically relevant antifungal in food use; resistance monitoring requested.
Sources: EFSA (2009) · EU (2008)

### E236 - Formic acid (Preservative) · Banned in UK food
Simplest carboxylic acid; pungent.
Where you see it. Was used as a fruit-juice preservative; not currently authorised in UK/EU food.
Why it's used. Simplest acid, strong against bacteria and yeast. Mainly used in animal feed and silage preservation; not authorised in EU food.

### E237 - Sodium formate (Preservative) · Banned in UK food
Sodium salt of formic acid.
Where you see it. Was used in some preserves; not authorised in UK/EU food.
Why it's used. Sodium-form formate, antimicrobial used in animal feed and silage. Not authorised as a direct food additive in current EU food.

### E238 - Calcium formate (Preservative) · Banned in UK food
Calcium salt of formic acid.
Where you see it. Was used as a preservative; not authorised in UK/EU food.
Why it's used. Like E236/E237, used in animal feed and silage; not authorised in UK/EU food.

### E239 - Hexamethylene tetramine (Preservative) · Banned in UK food
Compound that releases formaldehyde when it breaks down.
Where you see it. Restricted to provolone cheese only in the UK/EU.
What the research says. Restricted to provolone cheese rind in UK/EU; releases formaldehyde when it breaks down. Banned for general food use; the cheese rind is washed off before sale.
Sources: EFSA (2014) · EU (2008) · IARC (2006)

### E242 - Dimethyl dicarbonate (Preservative)
Cold-sterilising agent that decomposes to methanol and CO2.
Where you see it. Sterilises soft drinks, juices, ciders and wines.
Why it's used. 'Cold sterilisation' agent for soft drinks and wine. Kills yeasts at bottling, then breaks down to methanol and CO2 within hours.

### E243 - Ethyl lauroyl arginate (Preservative)
Cationic surfactant; antimicrobial.
Where you see it. Surface treatment on heat-treated meats and processed cheese.
Why it's used. Synthetic antibacterial used on cured-meat surfaces against Listeria. Body breaks it down to amino acid and fatty acid.

### E249 - Potassium nitrite (Preservative)
Potassium nitrite. A curing salt used in some processed meats.
Where you see it. Some cured ham, sausages, salami and cured-meat products.
What the research says. Used to cure processed meat. IARC classes processed meat as Group 1 (causes cancer in humans). The NHS caps processed meat at 70g a day. The reaction of nitrites in cured meat is part of the mechanism described in the IARC review.
Sources: IARC Monograph 114 (2018) · NHS Eatwell · SACN red & processed meat

### E250 - Sodium nitrite (Preservative)
Sodium nitrite. A common curing salt for processed meats.
Where you see it. Cured ham, bacon, salami, hot dogs, pâté and some sausages.
What the research says. Used to cure processed meat and prevent botulism. IARC classes processed meat as Group 1 (causes cancer in humans). NHS caps processed meat at 70g a day. Nitrite in cured meat is part of the carcinogenic mechanism described.
Sources: IARC Monograph 114 (2018) · NHS Eatwell · SACN red & processed meat

### E251 - Sodium nitrate (Preservative)
Sodium nitrate. Often used alongside nitrites in slow-cured meats.
Where you see it. Dry-cured hams, some salami and slow-cured charcuterie.
What the research says. Converts to nitrite in the meat. Same IARC Group 1 link as the other cured-meat preservatives. NHS caps processed meat at 70g a day.
Sources: IARC Monograph 114 (2018) · NHS Eatwell · SACN red & processed meat

### E252 - Potassium nitrate (Preservative)
Potassium nitrate (saltpetre). A traditional curing agent in slow-cured charcuterie.
Where you see it. Some traditional dry-cured hams and aged cheese rinds.
What the research says. Converts to nitrite in the meat over time. Same IARC Group 1 processed-meat link as the other curing salts.
Sources: IARC Monograph 114 (2018) · NHS Eatwell · SACN red & processed meat

### E260 - Acetic acid (Acidity regulator)
The acid in vinegar.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator and mild preservative in pickles, sauces and dressings.
What the research says. Codex CXG 82-2013 dressing standards allow acetic acid in any amount the recipe needs; UK and EU pickling and condiment use stays under that umbrella.
Sources: EFSA (2014) · JECFA (1973) · Willershausen (2014) · Codex

### E261 - Potassium acetate (Acidity regulator)
Potassium salt of acetic acid.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator in marinades and processed meats.
Why it's used. , pH buffer and sodium-replacement preservative in low-salt processed meats and packaged salads. Same chemistry as common vinegar.

### E262 - Sodium acetate (Acidity regulator)
Sodium salt of acetic acid; the vinegar tang.
Where you see it. Adds vinegary flavour and inhibits microbes in crisps and pickles.
Why it's used. Sodium salt of acetic acid, gives 'salt and vinegar' crisps their tang at room temperature where liquid vinegar would dampen the dust. Also a bread-mix buffer.

### E263 - Calcium acetate (Acidity regulator)
Calcium salt of acetic acid.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator and firming agent in tinned vegetables.
Why it's used. , buffers pH in dough, baked goods and processed cheese while supplying a bit of bioavailable calcium. Lower-sodium alternative to E262.

### E270 - Lactic acid (Acidity regulator)
Mild acid from bacterial fermentation.
Where you see it. Regulates acidity in dairy, dressings and pickled products.
Why it's used. Cheapest mild acid, same fermentation chemistry as yoghurt and sourdough. Standard for pH control in dairy, dressings, pickles and processed meat.

### E280 - Propionic acid (Preservative)
Short-chain fatty acid; mould inhibitor.
Where you see it. Stops mould in bread, baked goods and processed cheese.
What the research says. EU allows E280 in pre-packed sliced bread, partially baked bread and bakery wares at category-specific limits.
Sources: EFSA (2014) · Dengate (2002) · EU (2008)

### E281 - Sodium propionate (Preservative)
Sodium salt of propionic acid.
Where you see it. Mould inhibitor in bread, cakes and processed cheese.
What the research says. EU allows E281 alongside E280/E282 in pre-packed bread and bakery wares.
Sources: EFSA (2014) · Dengate (2002) · EU (2008)

### E282 - Calcium propionate (Preservative)
Calcium salt of propionic acid.
Where you see it. Stops mould in supermarket bread and bakery goods.
What the research says. EU rule 1129/2011 allows 0.1-0.3% in pre-packed bread and baked goods; rope-spore Bacillus is the main target in industrial loaves.
Sources: EFSA (2014) · Dengate (2002) · UK (1998) · EU (2011)

### E283 - Potassium propionate (Preservative)
Potassium salt of propionic acid.
Where you see it. Mould inhibitor in bread and bakery goods.
Why it's used. Used where the formulation needs low sodium (reduced-salt bread) and to avoid the calcium hardening E282 can cause.

### E284 - Boric acid (Preservative) · Banned in UK food
Boron compound used as a niche preservative.
Where you see it. Restricted to sturgeon caviar only in UK/EU.
What the research says. Linked to reproductive and developmental harm; banned in food except caviar. Animal studies show effects on fertility and the unborn at higher doses.
Sources: EFSA (2013) · EU (2008) · Murray (2004)

### E285 - Sodium tetraborate (Preservative) · Banned in UK food
Boron compound; mineral form is borax.
Where you see it. Restricted to sturgeon caviar only in UK/EU.
What the research says. Linked to reproductive and developmental harm; banned in food except caviar. Same toxicity profile as boric acid: fertility and developmental effects in animal studies.
Sources: EFSA (2013) · EU (2008)

### E290 - Carbon dioxide (Other)
Atmospheric gas.
Where you see it. Carbonates fizzy drinks; packaging gas in modified atmospheres.
Why it's used. The fizz in carbonated drinks, the modified-atmosphere gas in salad bags and the leavening in some baked goods. Cheap food-grade gas.

### E294 - Sodium hydrogen malate (Acidity regulator)
Sodium salt of malic acid.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator and flavour adjuster in soft drinks and jams.
Why it's used. Acidic sodium salt of malic acid, pH buffer and acidulant in jams, soft drinks and confectionery. Same metabolic fate as the parent acid.

### E295 - Ammonium malate (Acidity regulator)
Ammonium salt of malic acid.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator in confectionery and soft drinks.
Why it's used. Ammonium-form malate. Niche acidity regulator, mainly in dietetic and reduced-sodium products where sodium and potassium need to stay low.

### E296 - Malic acid (Acidity regulator)
Tart acid found naturally in apples.
Where you see it. Adds sharpness to sweets and soft drinks.
What the research says. Maleic-anhydride synthetic route (DL-malic) is cheaper than apple-derived L-malic; both forms allowed in food.
Sources: EFSA (2017) · JECFA (1967) · Lussi (2006) · FDA

### E297 - Fumaric acid (Acidity regulator)
Tart organic acid; sharper than citric.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator in baking powder, sweets and gelatin desserts.
Why it's used. Cheapest acid by acidity delivered, about a third the cost of citric. Standard in tortillas, gelatin desserts and powdered drink mixes.

### E298 - Fumaric acid (Acidity regulator)
Tart organic acid; naturally found in fumitory.
Where you see it. Adds sharpness to dry-mix drinks, sweets and baking products.
What the research says. Skin sensitisation reported in industrial settings; food-grade dietary use shows no comparable concern.
Sources: JECFA (2014) · EU (2008) · Felter (2009)

### E299 - Sodium fumarate (Acidity regulator)
Sodium salt of fumaric acid.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator in dry mixes and confectionery.
Why it's used. Less common than E298; used where formulation needs a more soluble fumarate without dropping pH.

### E300 - Vitamin C (Antioxidant)
Ascorbic acid, vitamin C, used as an antioxidant to stop foods discolouring.
Where you see it. Soft drinks and juices, cured meats, beer, bread and jams.
Why it's used. Cheapest food antioxidant. Water-soluble so works in juices, cured meats and baked goods. Industrial fermentation from glucose made it commodity in the 1930s.

### E301 - Sodium ascorbate (Antioxidant)
Sodium ascorbate, a form of vitamin C used as an antioxidant.
Where you see it. Cured and processed meats, fruit products, drinks and fats.
What the research says. No intake limit is set. In cured meats it is added to curb nitrosamine formation. It shares vitamin C’s chemistry that, with benzoate preservatives, can form trace benzene in drinks.
Sources: EFSA re-evaluation (2015)

### E302 - Calcium ascorbate (Antioxidant)
Calcium salt of vitamin C.
Where you see it. Antioxidant and vitamin C source in soft drinks and cereal.
Why it's used. Calcium-form vitamin C, non-acidic, so it can go into beverages, cereal, infant formula and dough without lowering pH. Often picked when extra calcium is wanted.

### E303 - Potassium ascorbate (Antioxidant)
Potassium salt of vitamin C.
Where you see it. Antioxidant in cured meats and beverages; sodium-free alternative.
Why it's used. , used where the formulation already needs sodium kept low (low-salt bread, reduced-sodium meats). Same antioxidant function as E301.

### E304 - Ascorbyl palmitate (Antioxidant)
Fat-soluble form of vitamin C.
Where you see it. Antioxidant in oils and infant formula; works in fats unlike E300.
Why it's used. , partitions into oils to protect frying fats, infant formula and powdered drinks that water-soluble ascorbate cannot reach.

### E306 - Tocopherols (Antioxidant)
Tocopherols, natural vitamin E, used as an antioxidant to stop fats and oils going rancid; usually drawn from vegetable oils.
Where you see it. Vegetable and cooking oils, margarine and spreads, fatty and fried foods and snack bars.
Why it's used. Same protection as vitamin C but oil-soluble, works where ascorbic acid can't (frying oils, emulsions, processed-meat fats). Cheap byproduct of soybean oil refining.

### E307 - Alpha-tocopherol (Antioxidant)
Pure alpha-form vitamin E.
Where you see it. Protects fats and oils from oxidation; doubles as a fortifier.
Why it's used. The purest, most-active vitamin E form. Pricier than mixed tocopherols (E306) but matches RDA exactly per mg, standard in infant formula and supplements.

### E308 - Gamma-tocopherol (Antioxidant)
Gamma form of vitamin E from vegetable oils.
Where you see it. Stops fats and oils oxidising; doubles as fortifier.
Why it's used. Vitamin E form recovered from soya, sunflower or rapeseed oil refining. Better than alpha-tocopherol at trapping reactive nitrogen molecules; extends oil shelf life.

### E309 - Delta-tocopherol (Antioxidant)
Delta form of vitamin E from vegetable oils.
Where you see it. Antioxidant in oils, fats and emulsified products.
Why it's used. Vitamin E form with the strongest antioxidant action in lab tests, preferred in long-shelf-life products like crisps and dry mixes.

### E310 - Propyl gallate (Antioxidant)
Synthetic antioxidant from plant gallic acid.
Where you see it. Stops fats going rancid in oils, snacks and chewing gum.
What the research says. Lab studies show estrogen-like activity at high doses.
Sources: EFSA (2014) · Pop (2018) · EU (2008)

### E311 - Octyl gallate (Antioxidant)
Synthetic antioxidant, longer-chain version of E310.
Where you see it. Antioxidant in oils, lard, dehydrated potato and gum.
Why it's used. Longer-chain gallate, partitions deeper into fats than E310. Used in margarine and frying oils where water-washout of E310 would lose protection.

### E312 - Dodecyl gallate (Antioxidant)
Synthetic antioxidant, longest-chain version of E310.
Where you see it. Stops fats going rancid in margarine, oils and snacks.
Why it's used. Most fat-loving gallate, used in frying oils and lard where shorter chains migrate out. Less water-extractable; longer protection on repeated heating.

### E315 - Erythorbic acid (Antioxidant)
Stereoisomer of vitamin C; no vitamin activity.
Where you see it. Stops oxidation and pinking in cured meats and pickles.
What the research says. Adds to uric acid load if you have gout. Breaks down to uric acid in the body. Worth limiting if you've had a gout flare.
Sources: EFSA (2016) · JECFA (1990) · EU (2008)

### E316 - Sodium erythorbate (Antioxidant)
Sodium salt of erythorbic acid.
Where you see it. Stops oxidation in cured meats; common in ham and bacon.
What the research says. Erythorbate, like ascorbate, dramatically lowers nitrosamine formation in nitrite-cured meats.
Sources: EFSA (2016) · Honikel (2008) · EU (2008)

### E319 - TBHQ (Antioxidant)
A synthetic antioxidant (TBHQ) related to BHA (E320) and BHT (E321), used to stop fats going rancid.
Where you see it. Vegetable oils, shortening, fried foods and snacks.
What the research says. EFSA set an acceptable daily intake of 0.7mg per kg of body weight. High doses caused stomach changes in animal studies; effects on the immune system are an emerging research question, not a regulatory finding.
Sources: EFSA re-evaluation (2004, exposure 2016)

### E320 - BHA (Antioxidant) · IARC Group 2B
A synthetic antioxidant (BHA) that stops fats and oils turning rancid. It often sits alongside BHT (E321), a different chemical.
Where you see it. Cooking fats and oils, spreads, chewing gum, and some snacks and processed foods.
What the research says. IARC classes BHA as Group 2B, possibly carcinogenic to humans, based on stomach tumours in animal studies, and California lists it as a carcinogen under Prop 65. EFSA permits it with an acceptable daily intake of 1mg per kg of body weight; US regulators reopened a safety review in 2026.
Sources: IARC Monograph 40 (1986) · CA Prop 65 (listed 1990) · EFSA re-evaluation (2011)

### E321 - BHT (Antioxidant)
A synthetic antioxidant (BHT), the chemical cousin of BHA (E320).
Where you see it. Cereals, fats and oils, chewing gum, baking mixes and frozen meals.
Why it's used. Same heat stability and cost as BHA in frying oils, cereals and gum. Less concerning than BHA (E320), no rat-tumour signal at typical use.

### E322 - Lecithin (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Lecithins, emulsifiers usually made from soya beans or eggs.
Where you see it. Chocolate, margarine and spreads, baked goods and infant formula.
Why it's used. Cheapest emulsifier by far. Soy lecithin is a near-zero-cost byproduct of soybean oil refining; sunflower variant is the soy-allergen-free option.

### E325 - Sodium lactate (Acidity regulator)
Sodium salt of lactic acid.
Where you see it. Regulates acidity and humectant in meats and baked goods.
Why it's used. Cheaper than glycerin for water-binding in processed meats. Mild antimicrobial against Listeria, the standard humectant in cooked ham and frankfurters.

### E326 - Potassium lactate (Acidity regulator)
Potassium salt of lactic acid.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator and humectant in processed meats.
Why it's used. Potassium-form lactate, antimicrobial and pH buffer in cooked meats and poultry. Extends shelf life and reduces sodium when paired with E325 sodium lactate.

### E327 - Calcium lactate (Other)
Calcium salt of lactic acid; calcium fortifier.
Where you see it. Firms tinned fruit, regulates acidity, fortifies plant milks.
Why it's used. Calcium salt of lactic acid. More soluble than calcium carbonate, so it dissolves cleanly into fortified drinks. Also a firming salt for canned fruit.

### E328 - Ammonium lactate (Acidity regulator)
Ammonium salt of lactic acid.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator and humectant in baked goods.
Why it's used. , niche acidity regulator in dietetic and reduced-sodium products. Less common than E325/E326.

### E330 - Citric acid (Acidity regulator)
Citric acid, an acidity regulator now made mostly by fermenting sugars with a mould (Aspergillus niger) rather than pressed from citrus fruit.
Where you see it. Soft drinks, sour sweets, jams, canned fruit and processed cheese.
What the research says. No intake limit is set. Like other dietary acids, the acidity it adds to drinks can wear at tooth enamel over time.
Sources: SCF (1990) · JECFA (1973)

### E331 - Sodium citrates (Acidity regulator)
Sodium salts of citric acid.
Where you see it. Regulates acidity in soft drinks, dairy and processed cheese.
What the research says. Sodium contribution: 0.3-0.6% sodium citrate in processed cheese adds modest sodium beyond cheese salt; potassium citrate alternative.
Sources: EFSA (2014) · JECFA (1973) · Lussi (2006)

### E332 - Potassium citrates (Acidity regulator)
Potassium salts of citric acid.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator and emulsifying salt in cheese.
What the research says. Used in medicine at high dose to alkalinise urine for kidney-stone prevention; food-additive intake stays well below clinical doses.
Sources: EFSA (2014) · JECFA (1973) · Lussi (2006) · EU (2011)

### E333 - Calcium citrates (Other)
Calcium salts of citric acid; calcium fortifier.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator in soft drinks and a calcium source.
Why it's used. Two jobs in one, buffers pH and delivers bioavailable calcium without a separate fortifier. Standard in cereals, juice and plant milks.

### E334 - Tartaric acid (Acidity regulator)
Mild organic acid found naturally in grapes.
Where you see it. Adds sharpness to sweets, drinks and baking powder blends.
Why it's used. Grape-derived acid, by-product of winemaking. Sharp clean sourness in soft drinks, jellies, baking powder (with E500) and confectionery.

### E335 - Sodium tartrates (Acidity regulator)
Sodium salts of tartaric acid.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator and emulsifying salt in cheese and jellies.
Why it's used. pH buffer and emulsifying salt in processed cheese, sausages and jams. Chosen when a more soluble salt is needed at higher pH.

### E336 - Potassium tartrates (Acidity regulator)
Potassium salts of tartaric acid; cream of tartar.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator in baking powder, meringues and confectionery.
Why it's used. Cream of tartar plus its dipotassium salt. Standard baking-powder acidulant, reacts with bicarbonate to lift sponge cakes; also stabilises egg whites.

### E337 - Sodium potassium tartrate (Acidity regulator)
Mixed sodium-potassium salt of tartaric acid.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator and emulsifying salt in processed cheese.
Why it's used. Mixed sodium/potassium tartrate. pH buffer and emulsifying salt; chosen where formulators want a balanced sodium/potassium load.

### E338 - Phosphoric acid (Acidity regulator)
Phosphoric acid, the sharp-tasting acid in cola.
Where you see it. Cola soft drinks; the wider phosphate family also appears in processed meats, dairy and baked goods.
What the research says. EFSA’s 2019 review put phosphates under a group limit of 40mg per kg of body weight (as phosphorus) and found children’s intake can exceed it. The limit does not apply to people with reduced kidney function, and cola’s acidity erodes tooth enamel.
Sources: EFSA phosphate re-evaluation (2019)

### E339 - Sodium phosphates (Other)
Sodium-phosphorus salts.
Where you see it. Retain moisture in processed meat, smooth processed cheese, regulate pH.
What the research says. Regular phosphate intake stresses kidneys and bone.
Sources: EFSA (2019) · Calvo (2014) · Ritz (2012) · Anderson (2018) · EU (2017)

### E340 - Potassium phosphates (Other)
Potassium-phosphorus salts.
Where you see it. Used in processed meats, cheese and pH regulation.
What the research says. Regular phosphate intake stresses kidneys and bone.
Sources: EFSA (2019) · Calvo (2014) · Ritz (2012) · Anderson (2018) · EU (2017)

### E341 - Calcium phosphates (Other)
Inorganic calcium-phosphorus salts.
Where you see it. Anti-caking, raising agent and calcium fortifier in cereals.
What the research says. Regular phosphate intake stresses kidneys and bone.
Sources: EFSA (2019) · Heaney (2002) · Calvo (2014) · Anderson (2018) · EU (1925)

### E342 - Ammonium phosphates (Other)
Ammonium-phosphorus salts.
Where you see it. Yeast nutrient and acidity regulator in baking and brewing.
What the research says. Regular phosphate intake stresses kidneys and bone.
Sources: JECFA (1982) · EFSA (2019) · EU (2011)

### E343 - Magnesium phosphates (Other)
Magnesium-phosphorus salts.
Where you see it. Anti-caking agent in powders and acidity regulator.
What the research says. Regular phosphate intake stresses kidneys and bone.
Sources: JECFA (1982) · EFSA (2019) · EU (2011)

### E344 - Lecithin citrate (Acidity regulator)
Lecithin combined with citric acid.
Where you see it. Antioxidant and emulsifier in fats and bakery applications.
Why it's used. Citric-acid form of lecithin, booster for fat antioxidants and emulsifier-buffer hybrid. Not authorised in current EU food; legacy code only.

### E350 - Sodium malates (Acidity regulator)
Sodium salts of malic acid.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator in low-sodium foods and beverages.
Why it's used. , pH buffers and sour acids in soft drinks, jams and confectionery. Chosen for higher solubility than the parent acid.

### E351 - Potassium malate (Acidity regulator)
Potassium salt of malic acid.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator in low-sodium foods and beverages.
Why it's used. , pH buffer used to lower sodium load in reformulated drinks and confectionery.

### E352 - Calcium malates (Acidity regulator)
Calcium salts of malic acid.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator and firming agent in tinned fruit.
Why it's used. Calcium-form malic acid salts, pH buffers that double as a calcium source in fortified drinks and dietetic foods.

### E353 - Metatartaric acid (Acidity regulator)
Polymerised tartaric acid.
Where you see it. Stops tartrate crystals forming in wine.
Why it's used. , winemaking aid that prevents potassium-bitartrate crystals in bottled wine. EU food use restricted to wine treatment.

### E354 - Calcium tartrate (Acidity regulator)
Calcium salt of tartaric acid.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator in baking powder, sweets and effervescent drinks.
Why it's used. , pH buffer with bonus calcium content. Niche use in confectionery and dietetic products.

### E355 - Adipic acid (Acidity regulator)
Mild dicarboxylic acid; tart taste similar to malic.
Where you see it. Provides tartness in powdered desserts, jellies and effervescent drinks.
Why it's used. Cheap acid with sourness between citric and tartaric. Standard in dry-mix gelatin desserts, drink powders and baking-powder blends; keeps powders dry on shelf.

### E356 - Sodium adipate (Acidity regulator)
Sodium salt of adipic acid.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator in dry mixes and effervescent drinks.
Why it's used. , pH buffer for jelly desserts and effervescent drink tablets where adipic acid alone would over-acidify.

### E357 - Potassium adipate (Acidity regulator)
Potassium salt of adipic acid.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator in dry mixes and effervescent drinks.
Why it's used. , pH buffer for reduced-sodium dry-mix drink and dessert products. Lower-sodium alternative to E356.

### E363 - Succinic acid (Acidity regulator)
Mild organic acid; component of human metabolism.
Where you see it. Adds tart flavour and acidity to sweets and effervescent drinks.
Why it's used. Krebs-cycle acid with a salty-bitter umami note. Niche acidulant in dry-mix desserts and lozenges; less common than citric or malic.

### E365 - Sodium fumarate (Acidity regulator)
Sodium salt of fumaric acid.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator in dry mixes, baking powder and gelatins.
Why it's used. Duplicate code for sodium fumarate (also listed as E299). Same metabolic and regulatory profile.

### E366 - Potassium fumarate (Acidity regulator)
Potassium salt of fumaric acid.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator in dry mixes and effervescent drinks.
Why it's used. , pH buffer for reduced-sodium dry-mix products and effervescent tablets.

### E367 - Calcium fumarate (Acidity regulator)
Calcium salt of fumaric acid.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator in dry mixes, baking powder and effervescent drinks.
Why it's used. Calcium-form fumarate, pH buffer that doubles as a body-friendly calcium source. Niche use in fortified dry-mix products.

### E368 - Ammonium fumarate (Acidity regulator)
Ammonium salt of fumaric acid.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator in dry mixes and effervescent drinks.
Why it's used. Niche acidity regulator, mainly used in dietetic and reduced-mineral formulations where neither sodium nor potassium nor calcium is wanted. Rare on UK retail labels.

### E370 - 1,4-Heptonolactone (Acidity regulator)
Lactone of heptonic acid.
Where you see it. Was used as an acidity regulator; not currently authorised in UK/EU.
Why it's used. Aldonic-acid lactone, internal acidulant once tried for chemical leavening. Not authorised in current EU food; legacy code only.

### E373 - Aluminium ammonium sulphate (Other)
Aluminium-ammonium salt; firming and pickling agent.
Where you see it. Was used to firm pickles; restricted in UK/EU since 2014.
What the research says. Aluminium builds up in bone and tissues with regular intake. Heavy users, especially children, can exceed the weekly aluminium intake limit.
Sources: EFSA (2008) · EU (2012) · EFSA (2014)

### E375 - Niacin (Other)
B-vitamin niacin (B3).
Where you see it. Fortifies cereals and bread to prevent dietary deficiency.
Why it's used. Pellagra prevention, UK has mandated wheat-flour fortification since 1953. Cheap synthetic. Pharmacological doses lower cholesterol but are regulated as a drug.

### E380 - Triammonium citrate (Acidity regulator)
Ammonium salt of citric acid.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator and emulsifying salt in processed cheese.
Why it's used. Specialty buffer for processed cheese where the ammonium aids melt without adding sodium. Standard in Kraft-style cheese slices.

### E381 - Ferric ammonium citrate (Other)
Iron-ammonium citrate complex.
Where you see it. Iron fortifier in some prescription supplements.
Why it's used. Highly water-soluble iron salt. Once used in fortified bread flour and cocoa drinks; mostly displaced by ferrous sulphate.

### E384 - Isopropyl citrate (Antioxidant)
Isopropyl form of citric acid; antioxidant aid.
Where you see it. Antioxidant synergist in fats and oil-based foods.
Why it's used. Citric-acid form used as a metal-binder in fats and oils, locks up trace iron and copper that would otherwise speed rancidity. Often paired with TBHQ or vitamin E.

### E385 - Calcium disodium EDTA (Other)
Synthetic chelating agent.
Where you see it. Binds metal ions to stop discolouration in canned beans and dressings.
What the research says. EU allows E385 at category-specific limits in canned shellfish, dressings, fat-containing sauces and emulsified sauces.
Sources: EFSA (2018) · JECFA (1965) · EU (2011)

### E392 - Rosemary extract (Antioxidant)
Antioxidant compounds from rosemary leaves.
Where you see it. Stops fats going rancid in oils, sausages and snacks.
Why it's used. Solvent or CO2 extract of rosemary leaves. Marketed as the 'natural' replacement for BHA/BHT in clean-label snacks, dressings and cured meats.

### E400 - Alginic acid (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Soluble fibre extracted from brown seaweed.
Where you see it. Thickens and gels ice cream, jellies and restructured foods.
Why it's used. Brown-seaweed acid, the parent of all alginate salts. Used in pie fillings, jellies and reformed-meat binders where a heat-stable gel that doesn't melt is wanted.

### E401 - Sodium alginate (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Sodium salt of alginic acid from brown seaweed.
Where you see it. Gels ice cream, restructures meat and stabilises sauces.
Why it's used. Most-used alginate salt, water-soluble and forms an instant gel with calcium. Standard for reformed onion rings, pimento stuffing in olives and spherification.

### E402 - Potassium alginate (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Potassium salt of seaweed alginic acid.
Where you see it. Thickener and gelling agent in jellies and confectionery.
Why it's used. Potassium counterpart of E401. Picked where a manufacturer needs to keep added sodium down, reduced-salt sauces, low-sodium dairy desserts.

### E403 - Ammonium alginate (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Ammonium salt of seaweed alginic acid.
Where you see it. Stabiliser and gelling agent in dairy and bakery items.
Why it's used. Ammonium salt of alginic acid, chosen when a sodium- and potassium-free alginate is needed for specific dietetic formulations. Limited mainstream use vs E401.

### E404 - Calcium alginate (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Calcium salt of seaweed alginic acid.
Where you see it. Forms heat-stable gels for restructured foods and bakery fillings.
Why it's used. Pre-formed calcium-alginate gel, the matrix used in reformed olives, fruit pearls and meat glaze. Sets without further calcium addition.

### E405 - Propylene glycol alginate (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Seaweed gum modified with propylene glycol.
Where you see it. Stabilises beer foam, salad dressings and fruit drinks.
Why it's used. Modified seaweed gum, keeps viscosity and foam at low pH where unmodified alginates fail. Used in salad dressings, beer foam and acidic dairy drinks.

### E406 - Agar (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Gelling gum from red seaweed.
Where you see it. Sets vegan jellies, sweets and microbiology media.
Why it's used. Red-seaweed gum that sets at room temperature into a brittle gel that re-melts only above 80°C. Vegetarian alternative to gelatin in jellies and aspic.

### E407 - Carrageenan (Thickener / Emulsifier)
A gelling and thickening fibre extracted from red seaweed.
Where you see it. Plant-based milks, dairy desserts, ice cream, cottage cheese and some processed meats.
What the research says. EFSA kept only a temporary acceptable daily intake in 2018 because it could not rule out that a small low-weight fraction behaves like degraded carrageenan, the acid-treated form IARC classes as Group 2B. EFSA also advises against using it in infant formula fed from birth.
Sources: EFSA re-evaluation (2018) · IARC Monograph 31 (1983), Suppl. 7 (1987)

### E407a - Processed eucheuma seaweed (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Whole seaweed flour from Eucheuma species.
Where you see it. Thickens dairy desserts and plant milks; cheaper than refined carrageenan.
Why it's used. Whole-seaweed cousin of carrageenan (E407). Cheaper because the seaweed residue is not removed; same gelling behaviour for dairy desserts and processed meats.

### E408 - Bakers yeast glycan (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Carbohydrate fibre from baker's yeast cell walls.
Where you see it. Stabiliser and thickener in dressings and dairy desserts.
Why it's used. Yeast cell-wall sugar chain, niche thickener and fat replacer in low-fat sauces. Rare in UK retail food.

### E410 - Locust bean gum (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Thickener gum from carob tree seeds.
Where you see it. Stabilises ice cream, dairy and gluten-free baked goods.
What the research says. Carob-bean thickening of infant formula linked to occasional gut tolerance issues at high concentrations in preterm infants.
Sources: EFSA (2017) · JECFA (1981) · Savino (2006) · EU (2008)

### E411 - Oat gum (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Soluble fibre gum from oat bran.
Where you see it. Thickens dairy desserts and sauces; adds soluble fibre.
Why it's used. Niche thickener; mostly replaced by guar and locust bean gum. More interesting as a fibre ingredient than an E-number.

### E412 - Guar gum (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Guar gum, a soluble fibre from the guar bean used to thicken and stabilise.
Where you see it. Ice cream, sauces and dressings, dairy and gluten-free bakery.
What the research says. No intake limit is set for general use, though large amounts can cause bloating. EFSA’s 2024 follow-up said the data do not yet show it is safe in foods for infants and young children.
Sources: EFSA re-evaluation (2017, infant follow-up 2024)

### E413 - Gum tragacanth (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Plant gum from the tragacanth shrub.
Where you see it. Stabiliser and thickener in sauces, dressings and confectionery.
What the research says. EU allows E413 in any amount the recipe needs across most categories.
Sources: EFSA (2017) · JECFA (1985) · Lagier (1995) · EU (2008)

### E414 - Gum arabic (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Soluble fibre and emulsifier from acacia tree sap.
Where you see it. Suspends flavour oils in soft drinks and glazes confectionery.
Why it's used. Acacia-tree gum. The soft-drink industry standard for keeping flavour oils dispersed and citrus cloud stable; also binds soft-coated pastilles.

### E415 - Xanthan gum (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Xanthan gum, a thickening fibre made by bacterial fermentation.
Where you see it. Salad dressings, sauces, dairy alternatives and gluten-free baking.
Why it's used. Bacterial-fermented gum. Only thickener stable across pH 3-12 and freezing, works for both acidic salad dressings AND ice cream.

### E416 - Karaya gum (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Plant gum from the karaya tree.
Where you see it. Thickens dressings, sauces and meringues; stabilises ice cream.
Why it's used. Sterculia-tree gum. Niche thickener for meringues and bakery glazes; mostly seen in pharmaceutical denture adhesives now.

### E417 - Tara gum (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Thickener gum from tara tree seeds.
Where you see it. Thickens dairy desserts, sauces and pet food.
Why it's used. Tara-pod gum, behaviour between guar and locust bean. Used as a drop-in replacement when supply or price of those two is volatile.

### E418 - Gellan gum (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Gelling agent made by bacterial fermentation.
Where you see it. Sets plant-based desserts and stabilises fortified plant milks.
Why it's used. Bacterial-fermented thickener. Sets a clear, heat-stable gel at very low doses, the structure behind plant-milk stability and clear jellies.

### E419 - Gum ghatti (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Plant gum from the Anogeissus latifolia tree.
Where you see it. Stabiliser and emulsifier in dressings and beverages.
Why it's used. Anogeissus-tree sap. Niche emulsifier-thickener; chosen where gum arabic supply is short. Rare in UK retail; more often seen for locking flavour oils into dry mixes.

### E420 - Sorbitol (Sweetener)
Sorbitol, a sugar alcohol used to sweeten and to keep products moist.
Where you see it. Sugar-free sweets and chewing gum, reduced-sugar and "diabetic" foods.
What the research says. UK law requires a "may have a laxative effect" warning when it makes up more than a tenth of a product. It is a FODMAP that commonly upsets people with IBS.
Sources: JECFA · UK labelling rules (Reg 1169/2011)

### E421 - Mannitol (Sweetener)
Sugar alcohol about 50% as sweet as sugar.
Where you see it. Bulks out sugar-free sweets and pharmaceutical tablets.
What the research says. Laxative effect above roughly 20g a day. Pulls water into the gut. Common in sugar-free mints, chewing gum and diabetic chocolate.
Sources: JECFA (2003) · Lebenthal (2008) · EU (2008)

### E422 - Glycerol (Other)
Glycerol (glycerine), a humectant and sugar alcohol that holds moisture.
Where you see it. Baked goods, confectionery, chewing gum, cereal bars and slush-ice drinks.
Why it's used. Cheap byproduct of soap-making and biodiesel production. Standard humectant in soft baked goods, low-fat icing and energy gels, keeps cookies chewy.

### E423 - Octenyl succinic acid modified gum arabic (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Acacia gum chemically modified to act as an emulsifier.
Where you see it. Emulsifier for soft-drink flavour oils; functions like E1450.
Why it's used. Gum arabic with a fatty tail added, stabilises oil-in-water emulsions for flavour oils and drink cloud at lower doses than plain gum arabic.

### E425 - Konjac (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Soluble fibre from konjac corm.
Where you see it. Sets jellies and adds bulk to plant-based products.
What the research says. Choking risk in jelly mini-cups. Banned in jelly cups since 2003 after choking deaths. The gel doesn't dissolve in saliva, it's the cup form that's regulated, not konjac flour or noodles.
Sources: EU (2003) · EFSA (2017) · JECFA (1996) · EU (2008)

### E426 - Soybean hemicellulose (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Soluble fibre extracted from soybean fibre.
Where you see it. Stabilises acidified milk drinks and emulsifies dressings.
Why it's used. Hot-water-extracted soluble fibre from soybeans. Stabilises acidic protein drinks (yoghurt drinks, soy milk). Carries a soya allergen declaration.

### E427 - Cassia gum (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Thickener gum from cassia seed.
Where you see it. Thickens dairy desserts, frozen meals and pet food.
Why it's used. Cassia-seed gum. Used with xanthan and carrageenan for cheap meat and dairy gels; a cost-driven swap for locust bean gum.

### E430 - Polyoxyethylene 8 stearate (Thickener / Emulsifier) · Banned in UK food
Synthetic stearate emulsifier.
Where you see it. Was used in bakery and dairy products; rare in current UK use.
Why it's used. Synthetic emulsifier, strong dough conditioner once used in industrial bread. Not relisted in current EU; effectively withdrawn since 1991.

### E431 - Polyoxyethylene 40 stearate (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Synthetic stearate emulsifier.
Where you see it. Used in bakery applications and yeast products.
Why it's used. Synthetic emulsifier once used in baked goods. Removed from EU food list in 1991; survives in some pharmaceutical excipient roles.

### E432 - Polysorbate 20 (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Synthetic emulsifier from sorbitol + lauric acid.
Where you see it. Stabilises dressings, ice cream and frozen desserts.
What the research says. Animal evidence of gut bacteria disruption. Mouse studies show thinning of the protective gut mucus layer at intakes a child can plausibly hit across processed foods.
Sources: EFSA (2015) · Chassaing (2015) · Bancil (2021) · EU (2008)

### E433 - Polysorbate 80 (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Synthetic emulsifier from sorbitol + oleic acid.
Where you see it. Mixes oil and water in ice cream, dressings and supplements.
What the research says. Animal evidence of gut bacteria disruption and inflammation. Mouse studies link it to gut barrier damage and low-grade inflammation. Human data is still emerging.
Sources: EFSA (2015) · Chassaing (2015) · Bancil (2021) · FRESCO (2024) · EU (2008)

### E434 - Polysorbate 40 (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Synthetic emulsifier from sorbitol + palmitic acid.
Where you see it. Stabilises dressings and bakery cream fillings.
What the research says. Animal evidence of gut bacteria disruption. Same emulsifier family as polysorbate 80. Mostly turns up in citrus soft drinks; intake adds up if you drink them daily.
Sources: EFSA (2015) · Chassaing (2015) · EU (2008)

### E435 - Polysorbate 60 (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Synthetic emulsifier from sorbitol + stearic acid.
Where you see it. Stabilises cakes, whipped toppings and ice cream.
What the research says. Polysorbate 80 (E433) shifted gut bacteria and promoted colitis in mice; E435 was not directly tested but shares the polysorbate structure.
Sources: EFSA (2015) · Chassaing (2015) · EU (2008)

### E436 - Polysorbate 65 (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Synthetic emulsifier from sorbitol + tristearate.
Where you see it. Used in baked goods and frozen desserts.
Why it's used. Tween 65, tristearate, more lipophilic than E435. Used in cake mixes and shortening blends needing soft solid texture. Niche compared with E433 and E435.

### E440 - Pectin (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Pectin, a gelling fibre from fruit, the classic jam setter.
Where you see it. Jams and preserves, fruit fillings, yoghurts, jellies and confectionery.
Why it's used. Only thickener that sets a true gel with sugar and acid, the jam standard. Cheap because made from juice-processing waste.

### E441 - Gelatin (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Protein from boiled animal bones, skin and connective tissue.
Where you see it. Sets jelly, gummy sweets and panna cotta.
Why it's used. Cattle or pig collagen. The default gelling agent for clear set jellies, marshmallow, jelly babies and pharmaceutical capsules.

### E442 - Ammonium phosphatides (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Synthetic emulsifier from glycerol and rapeseed fatty acids.
Where you see it. Stops fat bloom in chocolate; alternative to soya lecithin.
Why it's used. Phosphorylated rapeseed-oil emulsifier patented for chocolate. Lowers viscosity at a lower dose than soy lecithin; lecithin-free for soya-allergen labelling.

### E443 - Brominated vegetable oil (Thickener / Emulsifier) · Banned in UK food
Vegetable oil reacted with bromine.
Where you see it. Was used in citrus drinks; now banned in the UK/EU and US.
What the research says. Banned in UK/EU/US, bromine builds up in body fat.
Sources: Munro (1971) · Vorhees (1983) · Horowitz (2003) · EU (2008) · PepsiCo (2014)

### E444 - Sucrose acetate isobutyrate (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Sucrose modified with acetate and isobutyrate groups.
Where you see it. Keeps citrus flavour oils suspended in soft drinks.
Why it's used. Dense oil-soluble weighting agent that keeps flavour and citrus-oil emulsions from ringing out in clear soft drinks. Replaced BVO in many EU formulations.

### E445 - Glycerol esters of wood rosins (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Pine resin combined with glycerin.
Where you see it. Keeps citrus flavour oils suspended in soft drinks.
What the research says. Liver/kidney effects in animals.
Sources: JECFA (1992) · EFSA (2009) · EU (2008)

### E446 - Succistearin (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Fatty acid combined with succinic acid and glycerin.
Where you see it. Emulsifier in baked goods and frozen desserts.
What the research says. EU rule 1129/2011 additive annex does not include E446; not authorised for food in current EU/UK rules.
Sources: EU (2011) · JECFA (1973)

### E450 - Diphosphates (Other)
Diphosphates, raising and stabilising salts (part of the phosphate family).
Where you see it. Baking powder and self-raising flour, processed cheese and cured meats.
What the research says. They fall under EFSA’s 2019 group limit for phosphates of 40mg per kg of body weight (as phosphorus). EFSA found children’s intake can exceed it, and that the limit does not apply to people with reduced kidney function.
Sources: EFSA phosphate re-evaluation (2019)

### E451 - Triphosphates (Other)
Phosphate cousins of E450.
Where you see it. Retain water in chicken, fish and frozen seafood; stabilise processed cheese.
What the research says. Regular phosphate intake stresses kidneys and bone.
Sources: EFSA (2019) · Calvo (2014) · Ritz (2012) · Anderson (2018) · EU (2023)

### E452 - Polyphosphates (Other)
Long-chain phosphates.
Where you see it. Retain water and stabilise texture in cured meats, processed cheese and seafood.
What the research says. Regular phosphate intake stresses kidneys and bone.
Sources: EFSA (2019) · Calvo (2014) · Ritz (2012) · Trautvetter (2018) · EU (2023)

### E455 - Distarch hydrogen phosphate (Other)
Phosphate-cross-linked starch.
Where you see it. Stabilises canned soups, sauces and frozen meals.
Why it's used. Cheap thickener with better freeze-thaw stability than plain starch; less acid- and stir-stable than E1442.

### E456 - Potassium polyaspartate (Other)
A synthetic amino-acid polymer that stops crystals forming in wine.
Where you see it. Keeps tartrate crystals from forming in bottled wine.
Why it's used. Holds back potassium-bitartrate crystals so wine stays clear; used up to 300 mg/l and passed through largely undigested.

### E458 - Cyclodextrin (Other)
Ring-shaped sugar molecule that traps flavours.
Where you see it. Stabilises and protects flavours and vitamins in dry mixes.
Why it's used. Sugar-derived ring molecules that trap small molecules in their hollow centre. Used to mask off-flavours and stabilise volatile flavour oils.

### E459 - Beta-cyclodextrin (Other)
Ring-shaped sugar that traps flavour molecules inside.
Where you see it. Stabilises and encapsulates flavours in chewing gum and dry mixes.
Why it's used. Sugar-derived ring molecule sized to trap typical flavour molecules. Locks volatile flavours into dry beverage powders; also removes cholesterol from dairy.

### E460 - Cellulose (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Insoluble plant fibre purified from wood pulp.
Where you see it. Anti-caking agent in grated cheese; adds bulk to low-cal foods.
Why it's used. Cheap insoluble fibre from wood pulp; non-caloric. Used in fibre-fortified cereals and low-calorie breads to boost the fibre claim. Anti-caking in pre-grated cheese.

### E461 - Methyl cellulose (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Plant cellulose modified with methyl groups.
Where you see it. Thickener and binder in plant-based meat and gluten-free baking.
Why it's used. Cellulose ether that gels on heating and melts on cooling, opposite of gelatin. The structure-builder behind many vegan sausage and patty analogues.

### E462 - Ethyl cellulose (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Plant cellulose modified with ethyl groups.
Where you see it. Film-former and binder in flavour encapsulation and tablets.
Why it's used. Ethylated cellulose ether. Niche use as a binder and film-former in flavour encapsulation and pharmaceutical coatings; rare in mainstream UK retail food.

### E463 - Hydroxypropyl cellulose (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Plant cellulose modified with hydroxypropyl groups.
Where you see it. Thickener and stabiliser in dressings and bakery products.
Why it's used. Cellulose ether soluble in cold water and many organic solvents. Used as a film-former on confectionery and fruit, and as a binder in tablets.

### E464 - Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Cellulose modified with methyl and hydroxypropyl groups.
Where you see it. Binder in plant-based meat and gluten-free bread.
Why it's used. The vegan-capsule polymer; also used in gluten-free bakery to mimic the elastic structure gluten provides. Gels above ~60°C, releases on cooling.

### E465 - Ethyl methyl cellulose (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Cellulose modified with ethyl and methyl groups.
Where you see it. Foam stabiliser and thickener in mousses and whipped toppings.
Why it's used. Mixed ethyl/methyl cellulose ether. Used as a foam stabiliser in mousses and aerated dairy desserts. Niche compared to E461/E464.

### E466 - Cellulose gum (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Modified plant cellulose; dissolves in water.
Where you see it. Thickens reduced-fat and low-sugar products to mimic full-fat texture.
What the research says. Animal evidence of gut bacteria disruption at high doses.
Sources: Chassaing (2015) · EFSA (2018) · Chassaing (2022) · Sandall (2023) · EFSA (2017)

### E467 - Ethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Modified cellulose ether.
Where you see it. Thickens dietetic foods and gluten-free products.
Why it's used. Less common cellulose ether. Used as a viscosity modifier and emulsion stabiliser in specialised food applications; rare on UK retail labels.

### E468 - Cross-linked sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Cross-linked variant of CMC; insoluble in water.
Where you see it. Disintegrant in food supplements and dry-blended foods.
Why it's used. Cross-linked CMC used in food supplements as a disintegrant, swells rapidly on contact with water to break tablets apart.

### E469 - Enzymically hydrolysed carboxymethyl cellulose (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Enzymically broken-down CMC.
Where you see it. Soluble fibre and stabiliser in dietetic products.
Why it's used. Enzymically chopped CMC giving lower-viscosity, higher-solubility cellulose gum for clear, low-pulp drinks and reduced-sugar dairy. Niche compared to standard E466.

### E470 - Salts of fatty acids (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Sodium, potassium and calcium salts of fatty acids.
Where you see it. Generic E470, superseded on labels by E470a / E470b.
What the research says. Aluminium builds up in bone and tissues with regular intake. The aluminium-bearing forms were restricted in 2014 because children's intake was running over the weekly aluminium limit. Sodium and calcium versions don't carry that load.
Sources: EFSA (2018) · JECFA (1973) · EU (2008)

### E470a - Sodium, potassium and calcium salts of fatty acids (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Soap-like salts of fatty acids.
Where you see it. Anti-caking agent and emulsifier in powdered foods.
Why it's used. Metal soaps of palmitic and stearic acid. Anti-caking in icing sugar, flow-aid in soup powders, and dough conditioner in industrial bread.

### E470b - Magnesium salts of fatty acids (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Magnesium soap of fatty acids.
Where you see it. Anti-caking agent and tablet glidant in supplements.
Why it's used. Magnesium stearate is the standout, ubiquitous tablet glidant; also in icing sugar, cocoa powder and confectionery dust as anti-caking.

### E471 - Mono- and diglycerides (Thickener / Emulsifier)
An emulsifier made by combining glycerol with fatty acids so oil and water stay blended. The fats can be plant or animal.
Where you see it. Bread, cakes, margarine, ice cream, chilled desserts and many baked goods.
What the research says. UK labels do not say whether the fat is plant or animal, so vegans and vegetarians cannot tell from the ingredients list. EFSA noted its specification sets no limit on trans fats and asked for one to be added. Research on emulsifiers and gut bacteria is early; for E471 itself the direct evidence is animal studies plus observational human data, not proof of harm.
Sources: EFSA re-evaluation (2017, reaffirmed 2021) · JECFA (1973)

### E472a - Acetic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Fat-based emulsifier modified with vinegar acid.
Where you see it. Stabiliser and emulsifier in baked goods and whipped toppings.
Why it's used. Acid-stable form of E471. Used where vinegar dressings or yoghurt would break the emulsion. Closer to natural mono/diglycerides than DATEM in microbiome studies.

### E472b - Lactic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Fat-based emulsifier modified with lactic acid.
Where you see it. Aerates whipped toppings and softens bread.
Why it's used. Foam-stable form of E471 emulsifier. Standard in whipped toppings, dairy desserts and Bavarian-cream fillings. Cheaper than synthetic foaming agents.

### E472c - Citric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Fat-based emulsifier modified with citric acid.
Where you see it. Antioxidant and emulsifier in fats, oils and bakery.
Why it's used. Citric-acid-modified emulsifier. Standard in margarine and spreads where the acidity stabilises the oil-water boundary at fridge temperatures.

### E472d - Tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Fat-based emulsifier modified with tartaric acid.
Where you see it. Emulsifier in bakery and dairy applications.
Why it's used. Tartaric-acid-modified emulsifier, dough strengthener for industrial baguettes and pizza bases. More acid-tolerant than E472e DATEM in long-fermentation doughs.

### E472e - DATEM (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Synthetic emulsifier built from mono-/diglycerides.
Where you see it. Gives bread its springy, fine-textured crumb.
What the research says. Animal evidence of gut bacteria disruption at high doses.
Sources: Chassaing (2015) · EFSA (2017) · Naimi (2019) · Sandall (2023) · EFSA (2024)

### E472f - Mixed acetic and tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Fat-based emulsifier modified with vinegar and tartaric acids.
Where you see it. Bread emulsifier and dough strengthener.
Why it's used. Hybrid of E472a and E472d emulsifiers. Used as a dough conditioner in industrial bread and cake mixes where both crumb softness and gas retention are wanted.

### E473 - Sucrose esters (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Emulsifiers built from sucrose and fatty acids.
Where you see it. Used in baked goods, ice cream and emulsified drinks.
Why it's used. Sugar-derived emulsifier made by reacting sucrose with fatty acids. Common in coffee whiteners, bakery and aerated dairy.

### E474 - Sucroglycerides (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Sugar-and-fat emulsifier blend.
Where you see it. Emulsifier in baked goods, ice cream and dairy desserts.
Why it's used. Sucrose-and-fat reaction product. Cheaper, mixed-product cousin of E473, used where the same sucrose-ester role is needed without the cost.

### E475 - Polyglycerol esters (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Emulsifiers from polyglycerol + fatty acids.
Where you see it. Keeps chocolate smooth and margarine spreadable.
Why it's used. Cheap workhorse emulsifier in cake mixes, whipped toppings and margarine. Wide functional range from one synthesis route.

### E476 - PGPR (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR), an emulsifier from castor oil that keeps chocolate flowing.
Where you see it. Chocolate and chocolate coatings, low-fat spreads and some sauces.
Why it's used. Chocolate cost lever. Cuts viscosity so makers use ~5% less cocoa butter at the same flow, saves billions globally. Cadbury, Mars, Hershey all use it.

### E477 - Propylene glycol esters (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Propylene glycol combined with fatty acids.
Where you see it. Aerates whipped toppings, cake mixes and instant desserts.
Why it's used. Aerator for cake batters and whipped toppings; gives the fine, stable foam separated mono/diglycerides can't match in a high-sugar base.

### E478 - Lactylated fatty acid esters of glycerol and propylene glycol (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Fat-based emulsifier with lactic-acid and propylene-glycol groups.
Where you see it. Aerates whipped toppings and stabilises emulsions in cake mixes.
What the research says. Can have a laxative effect at high intake. Food doses are far below medicinal ones, but the mechanism is identical. Rare in UK products.
Sources: JECFA (1974) · EU (2008)

### E479b - Thermally oxidised soya bean oil (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Soya bean oil reacted with mono-/diglycerides.
Where you see it. Releasing agent on baking trays and frying surfaces.
Why it's used. Soybean oil heat-treated with mono/diglycerides, release agent for industrial dough dividers and tin liners. Highly specific use.

### E480 - Sodium docusate (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Surfactant emulsifier; same compound as in some laxatives.
Where you see it. Wetting agent in dehydrated drinks and chewing-gum bases.
Why it's used. Wetting agent. Niche use in instant-drink mixes and isotonic drinks where fast hydration of dry powder matters; better known as a pharmaceutical laxative.

### E481 - Sodium stearoyl lactylate (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Sodium salt of stearoyl lactylate.
Where you see it. Strengthens dough and softens bread crumb.
Why it's used. Industrial bread improver. Strengthens dough so loaves rise faster, slice cleanly and stay soft. Cheaper than longer fermentation.

### E482 - Calcium stearoyl lactylate (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Calcium salt of stearoyl lactylate.
Where you see it. Strengthens dough and softens bread crumb.
Why it's used. Dough conditioner and crumb softener for industrial bread. Cheaper and more heat-stable than E471 mono/diglycerides for the same loaf-volume effect.

### E483 - Stearyl tartrate (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Fatty alcohol combined with tartaric acid.
Where you see it. Dough conditioner and improver in flour mixes.
Why it's used. Bakery dough conditioner. Largely displaced by E481/E482 stearoyl lactylates, which give the same crumb effect at lower cost.

### E484 - Stearyl citrate (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Fatty alcohol combined with citric acid.
Where you see it. Sequestrant in margarines and oils to prevent metal-driven oxidation.
Why it's used. Citric ester of a fatty alcohol. Marginal use as an emulsifier and metal-binder; mostly replaced by E471 plus citric acid as a cheaper combination.

### E486 - Calcium stearoyl lactylate (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Calcium salt of stearoyl lactylate.
Where you see it. Improves volume and crumb structure in bread and bakery.
Why it's used. Regional alternate code for E482. Functionally identical dough conditioner for industrial bread.

### E487 - Sodium laurylsulphate (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Synthetic surfactant.
Where you see it. Whipping aid in egg-white substitutes and batters.
What the research says. Not authorised for food in the UK or EU.
Sources: JECFA (1969) · Loffler (2007) · EU (2008)

### E488 - Ethoxylated mono- and diglycerides (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Ethylene-oxide-treated mono/diglyceride mixture.
Where you see it. Was used as a baking emulsifier; rarely seen in UK food.
Why it's used. Modified emulsifier used in US bakery and ice-cream mixes for fine-foam stability. Not authorised in the EU; encountered only on imports.

### E490 - Propane-1,2-diol (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Propylene glycol; humectant and carrier.
Where you see it. Carrier solvent for flavours and colours; humectant in icings.
Why it's used. Propylene glycol, humectant and solvent for flavour and colour preparations. Cheap, polar and miscible with water and ethanol.

### E491 - Sorbitan monostearate (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Synthetic emulsifier from sorbitol + stearic acid.
Where you see it. Stabilises emulsions in cakes, dressings and yeast.
Why it's used. Oil-loving emulsifier. Stabilises water-in-oil systems like cake icings and whipped toppings; often paired with E435 polysorbate 60.

### E492 - Sorbitan tristearate (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Synthetic emulsifier built from sorbitol + stearic acid.
Where you see it. Stabilises chocolate, dressings and bakery; prevents fat bloom.
Why it's used. Sorbitan-stearate ester. Crystal-modifier in chocolate and confectionery fats, controls fat-bloom by directing cocoa-butter polymorph during tempering.

### E493 - Sorbitan monolaurate (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Synthetic emulsifier from sorbitol and lauric acid.
Where you see it. Stabilises emulsions in dressings and bakery fillings.
Why it's used. Lauric sorbitan ester (HLB ~8.6). More water-soluble than E491; used in flavour-emulsion concentrates and dessert mixes. Niche compared with E491 monostearate.

### E494 - Sorbitan monooleate (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Synthetic emulsifier from sorbitol and oleic acid.
Where you see it. Stabilises emulsions in dressings, bakery and ice cream.
Why it's used. Sorbitan-oleate ester. Stabiliser for ice-cream emulsions and aerated desserts; softer mouthfeel than E491 in the same dose.

### E495 - Sorbitan monopalmitate (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Synthetic emulsifier from sorbitol and palmitic acid.
Where you see it. Stabilises whipped toppings, cake mixes and dressings.
Why it's used. Palmitic sorbitan ester. Co-emulsifier in cake mixes and dessert toppings; sits between E491 and E493 for the 'middle option' on emulsion balance.

### E498 - Partial polyglycerol esters of polycondensed fatty acids of castor oil (Thickener / Emulsifier)
Polyglycerol-castor-oil ester; emulsifier.
Where you see it. Stabilises chocolate and cocoa-fat coatings.
Why it's used. Niche viscosity reducer for chocolate, close cousin of E476 PGPR. Limited authorisation; rare in UK retail.

### E499 - Stigmasterol-rich plant sterols (Other)
Plant-sterol blend rich in stigmasterol.
Where you see it. Stabilises sterol-fortified spreads and yoghurt drinks.
Why it's used. Cholesterol-lowering plant-sterol fraction. EU authorised in 2014 for vodka-based ready-to-freeze cocktails, keeps the slush phase stable.

### E500 - Sodium carbonates (Other)
Bicarbonate of soda and related sodium carbonates, raising agents and acidity regulators.
Where you see it. Self-raising flour, cakes, biscuits, soda bread and baking soda itself.
Why it's used. Soda ash and sodium bicarbonate. Cheap food-grade alkali, neutralises cocoa, browns pretzel dips, leavens soda bread and buffers soft drinks.

### E501 - Potassium carbonates (Other)
Inorganic potassium-carbonate salts.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator and raising agent; sodium-free alternative.
Why it's used. Potash. Used to alkalise cocoa (Dutch processing), make pretzel-style lye-dipped doughs and as a low-sodium alternative to sodium carbonate.

### E503 - Ammonium carbonates (Other)
Baker’s ammonia (ammonium carbonates), a traditional raising agent for thin, crisp bakes.
Where you see it. Crackers, gingerbread and spiced biscuits, and other thin or flat baked goods.
Why it's used. Baker's ammonia, leaves no salt residue and bakes off as ammonia, CO2 and water. Still used in flat thin biscuits and German lebkuchen where soda would taste soapy.

### E504 - Magnesium carbonate (Acidity regulator)
A magnesium mineral salt used to control acidity and caking.
Where you see it. Stops powders clumping and adjusts acidity in cocoa, salt and spice blends.
What the research says. Magnesium salts can have a laxative effect at high intake; a general property of magnesium, not specific to this additive.
Sources: JECFA (1965) · SCF (1990)

### E507 - Hydrochloric acid (Acidity regulator)
A strong processing acid used to adjust pH.
Where you see it. Adjusts acidity during food and drink manufacture.
Why it's used. Standard mineral acid for pH control in processing; cheap and effective, then neutralised by the food it is added to.

### E508 - Potassium chloride (Other)
Mineral salt; the salt-substitute potassium chloride.
Where you see it. Lowers sodium in reformulated foods; gels in vegan cheese.
Why it's used. Salt-substitute partner for sodium chloride, same ionic kick on the tongue at lower sodium load. Core ingredient in reduced-salt bread, soup and ready-meal reformulation.

### E509 - Calcium chloride (Other)
Inorganic mineral salt.
Where you see it. Firms canned vegetables, sets cheese curds, adjusts brewing water.
Why it's used. The firming salt in canned tomatoes, pickles and tinned vegetables, calcium ions cross-link pectin and stop the flesh going to mush.

### E510 - Ammonium chloride (Other)
Ammonium-chloride salt; gives salmiak liquorice its tang.
Where you see it. Sharp salty flavour in Nordic salmiak liquorice; rare in UK food.
What the research says. EU allows E510 in flour treatment, yeast nutrition and salty liquorice at category-specific limits.
Sources: JECFA (1965) · EU (2008) · EU (2011)

### E511 - Magnesium chloride (Other)
Magnesium-chlorine salt.
Where you see it. Coagulates tofu (nigari); firms canned vegetables.
Why it's used. Nigari, traditional coagulant for tofu and a firming salt in canned vegetables. Cheaper than calcium-based firmers when sodium needs to stay low.

### E512 - Stannous chloride (Antioxidant)
Tin chloride salt; antioxidant.
Where you see it. Stops white asparagus going grey in tinned and bottled products.
What the research says. EU allows E512 in canned white asparagus only, at 25 mg/kg residual Sn.
Sources: EFSA (2018) · JECFA (2005) · Boogaard (2003) · EU (2008)

### E513 - Sulphuric acid (Acidity regulator)
Strong mineral acid.
Where you see it. Processing aid in sugar refining and starch hydrolysis.
Why it's used. for pH adjustment in starch and sugar processing, brewery wash water and yeast fermentation. Process aid, not declared on labels.

### E514 - Sodium sulphates (Other)
Sodium-sulphur salts.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator and diluent in dry blends.
Why it's used. Cheap pH buffer and bulking salt, Glauber's salt by another name. Niche food use; mostly in dilute brewing salts and process-aid roles.

### E515 - Potassium sulphates (Other)
Potassium-sulphur salts.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator and salt substitute in low-sodium foods.
Why it's used. Brewing and table-water salt that adds dry, bitter character. Used as a process aid in reduced-sodium salt blends and in mineral-water replication for craft brewing.

### E516 - Calcium sulphate (Other)
Mineral salt; gypsum.
Where you see it. Coagulates tofu, conditions dough and firms canned vegetables.
Why it's used. Mineral gypsum, food-grade. The traditional coagulant for tofu. Also a calcium source in bread flour and a firming agent in canned vegetables.

### E517 - Ammonium sulphate (Other)
Ammonium-sulphur salt.
Where you see it. Yeast nutrient in baking and brewing.
Why it's used. Yeast nutrient and dough conditioner, feeds nitrogen to bread fermentation. Mostly a process aid.

### E519 - Copper sulphate (Other) · Banned in UK food
Copper-sulphur salt; processing aid.
Where you see it. Was used as a colour stabiliser in pickles; not authorised in UK/EU food.
What the research says. Not authorised in UK/EU food.
Sources: EFSA (2009) · EU (2011)

### E520 - Aluminium sulphate (Other)
Aluminium-sulphur salt; firming agent.
Where you see it. Firms egg whites and pickled vegetables.
What the research says. Aluminium builds up in bone and tissues with regular intake.
Sources: EFSA (2008) · EU (2012) · EFSA (2014)

### E521 - Aluminium sodium sulphate (Other)
Sodium-aluminium-sulphur salt.
Where you see it. Stabiliser in baking powder and pickling brines.
What the research says. Aluminium builds up in bone and tissues with regular intake.
Sources: EFSA (2008) · EU (2012) · EFSA (2014)

### E522 - Aluminium potassium sulphate (Other)
Potassium-aluminium-sulphur salt; a firming agent.
Where you see it. Firms pickled vegetables and stabilises egg-white whisking.
What the research says. Aluminium builds up in bone and tissues with regular intake.
Sources: EFSA (2008) · EU (2012)

### E523 - Aluminium ammonium sulphate (Other)
Ammonium-aluminium-sulphur salt; a firming agent.
Where you see it. Firming and stabilising agent in pickling and egg-white whisking.
What the research says. Aluminium builds up in bone and tissues with regular intake.
Sources: EFSA (2008) · EU (2012)

### E524 - Sodium hydroxide (Other)
Strong alkali; processing aid.
Where you see it. Adjusts pH and treats olives, pretzels and cocoa.
Why it's used. Caustic soda. The dipping bath that gives pretzels and bagels their dark glossy crust; also a pH adjuster. Reacts away during baking.

### E525 - Potassium hydroxide (Other)
Strong alkali; processing aid.
Where you see it. Adjusts pH in food production; treats olives and cocoa.
Why it's used. Caustic potash, same role as E524 in cocoa alkalisation and pH adjustment, but adds potassium rather than sodium. Used where reduced-sodium positioning matters.

### E526 - Calcium hydroxide (Other)
Calcium-based alkali.
Where you see it. Firms tinned vegetables and treats corn for tortillas.
Why it's used. Slaked lime. The lime-soaking step that turns maize into masa for tortillas; also a firming agent in pickles and a pH-raiser in sugar refining.

### E527 - Ammonium hydroxide (Other)
Ammonia dissolved in water.
Where you see it. pH adjuster in cocoa and processing aid for caramel.
Why it's used. Ammonia in water. Used as a process aid in cocoa alkalisation and caramel-colour manufacture; bakes off as ammonia, leaves no residue.

### E528 - Magnesium hydroxide (Other)
Magnesium-based alkali.
Where you see it. pH adjuster and magnesium fortifier in plant milks.
Why it's used. Milk of magnesia in food form. Niche neutralising agent in cheese processing and sugar refining. Better known as an antacid.

### E529 - Calcium oxide (Other)
Calcium-based alkali; quicklime.
Where you see it. Treats corn for tortillas and adjusts pH in sugar refining.
Why it's used. Quicklime, becomes slaked lime (E526) on contact with water. Process aid in sugar refining and cocoa alkalisation; never reaches the consumer as quicklime.

### E530 - Magnesium oxide (Other)
Inorganic magnesium oxide.
Where you see it. Anti-caking agent in salt and powdered foods; magnesium fortifier.
Why it's used. Anti-caking agent in salt and powdered drink mixes; also a magnesium fortifier. Cheap mineral form that converts to magnesium hydroxide in water.

### E534 - Ferric tartrate (Other)
Iron salt of tartaric acid.
Where you see it. Anti-caking agent in salt; rare in modern UK products.
Why it's used. Niche anti-caking agent for salt, alternative where the cyanide-family additives are to be avoided. Rare on UK retail labels.

### E535 - Sodium ferrocyanide (Other)
Sodium iron-cyanide complex; anti-caking agent.
Where you see it. Stops table salt clumping; standard in UK refined salt.
Why it's used. The yellow-prussiate-of-soda anti-caking agent in table salt, a few mg per kg keeps salt free-flowing in damp UK conditions.

### E536 - Potassium ferrocyanide (Other)
Potassium iron-cyanide complex; anti-caking agent.
Where you see it. Stops table salt and curing salts clumping.
Why it's used. Anti-caking agent in salt and a clarifier in wine to remove trace copper and iron. Same iron-cyanide complex as E535, locked tight, not free cyanide.

### E538 - Calcium ferrocyanide (Other)
Calcium iron-cyanide complex; anti-caking agent.
Where you see it. Stops salt and curing salts clumping.
What the research says. Long-term safety still being studied at higher intakes. Used as an anti-caking agent in salt; intake from a normal diet is small, but chronic-exposure data is thinner than for older additives.
Sources: EFSA (2018) · JECFA (1974) · EU (2011)

### E541 - Sodium aluminium phosphate (Other)
Sodium-aluminium phosphate raising agent.
Where you see it. Slow-release acidulant in baking powder for cake mixes.
What the research says. Aluminium builds up in bone and tissues with regular intake.
Sources: EFSA (2008) · EU (2012) · EFSA (2014) · JECFA (1982)

### E542 - Bone phosphate (Other)
Calcium phosphate from defatted animal bone.
Where you see it. Anti-caking agent and calcium fortifier; not vegan-suitable.
Why it's used. Calcium and phosphate from defatted, sterilised animal bone. Anti-caking agent and mineral source. EU keeps tight source paperwork over TSE risk.

### E544 - Calcium polyphosphates (Other)
Long-chain calcium polyphosphates.
Where you see it. Anti-caking agent in powders and binder in processed cheese.
What the research says. Regular phosphate intake stresses kidneys and bone.
Sources: EFSA (2019) · JECFA (1982) · EU (2011)

### E545 - Ammonium polyphosphates (Other)
Long-chain ammonium polyphosphates.
Where you see it. Was used as a bread improver; rare in UK/EU food.
What the research says. Regular phosphate intake stresses kidneys and bone.
Sources: EFSA (2019) · JECFA (1982) · EU (2011)

### E546 - Magnesium pyrophosphate (Other)
Magnesium-phosphate salt.
Where you see it. Anti-caking and acidity regulator in powders.
What the research says. Regular phosphate intake stresses kidneys and bone.
Sources: EFSA (2019) · JECFA (1982) · EU (2011)

### E550 - Sodium silicates (Other)
Sodium-silicate compounds.
Where you see it. Anti-caking agent in dry powders and salt.
Why it's used. Anti-caking agent for powdered foods and salt, silicate molecules soak up surface moisture so the product flows.

### E551 - Silicon dioxide (Other)
Food-grade amorphous silica.
Where you see it. Stops powders clumping in spices, salt and instant coffee.
Why it's used. The dominant anti-caking agent in powdered seasonings, instant coffee whiteners and supplement tablets. Cheap, inert, absorbs moisture.

### E552 - Calcium silicate (Other)
Mineral calcium-silicate salt.
Where you see it. Anti-caking agent in salt, baking powder and dry mixes.
Why it's used. Calcium-form silicate anti-caking agent for table salt, baking powder and dry seasoning blends. Chosen where the formulation already carries enough sodium.

### E553a - Magnesium silicate (Other)
Magnesium-silicate mineral salts.
Where you see it. Anti-caking agent in powdered foods and sweets.
Why it's used. Anti-caking agent for table salt, rice flour and spice blends. Synthetic grade preferred over talc where colour and fibre risk matter.

### E553b - Talc (Other)
Talc, a natural soft mineral.
Where you see it. Anti-caking agent and glazing aid in tablets and confectionery.
Why it's used. Mined soft mineral, used as a glaze and release agent on rice, chewing gum and confectionery. Food-grade specs require asbestos-free sources.

### E554 - Sodium aluminium silicate (Other)
Sodium-aluminium silicate; anti-caking agent.
Where you see it. Stops salt and dry mixes clumping.
What the research says. Aluminium builds up in bone and tissues with regular intake.
Sources: EFSA (2008) · EU (2012) · EFSA (2014) · EFSA (2018)

### E555 - Potassium aluminium silicate (Other)
Potassium-aluminium silicate; anti-caking agent.
Where you see it. Anti-caking agent in salt and powdered foods.
What the research says. Aluminium builds up in bone and tissues with regular intake.
Sources: EFSA (2008) · EU (2012) · EFSA (2018)

### E556 - Calcium aluminium silicate (Other)
Mixed calcium-aluminium silicate.
Where you see it. Anti-caking agent in salt and dry mixes.
What the research says. Aluminium builds up in bone and tissues with regular intake.
Sources: EFSA (2008) · EU (2012) · EFSA (2018)

### E558 - Bentonite (Other)
Natural clay (aluminium silicate).
Where you see it. Clarifies wine and fruit juice; binds proteins.
Why it's used. Naturally occurring clay, used as a fining agent in wine and fruit-juice clarification. Settles out before bottling, so no residue on the finished product.

### E559 - Aluminium silicate (Other)
Aluminium silicate clay.
Where you see it. Anti-caking agent in salt, powders and spices.
What the research says. Aluminium builds up in bone and tissues with regular intake.
Sources: EFSA (2008) · EU (2012) · EFSA (2018)

### E560 - Potassium silicate (Other)
Potassium-silicate compound.
Where you see it. Anti-caking agent in salt and powdered foods.
Why it's used. Synthetic potassium-form silicate, niche anti-caking and clarifying use. Rare on UK retail labels; mostly an industrial dry-mix processing aid.

### E570 - Fatty acids (Other)
Saturated fatty acids from plant or animal fats.
Where you see it. Anti-caking agent and processing aid in food manufacture.
Why it's used. Free fatty acids from refined vegetable or animal fat. Anti-foaming agents, glazing carriers and lubricants in confectionery and baking.

### E574 - Gluconic acid (Acidity regulator)
Mild organic acid from glucose oxidation.
Where you see it. Acidity regulator and sequestrant in baked goods and beverages.
Why it's used. Mild fermentation acid from glucose. Less sour than citric, better at binding metals, used in mineral-fortified drinks and meat brines.

### E575 - Glucono delta-lactone (Acidity regulator)
Mild organic acid that gradually releases acidity.
Where you see it. Slow-release acidulant in cured meats and bakery goods.
Why it's used. Slow-release acid that activates when wetted. The acidulant in tofu, dry sausage starters and bake-stable doughnut leavening; gives a clean lactic note.

### E576 - Sodium gluconate (Other)
Sodium salt of gluconic acid.
Where you see it. Sequestrant in dairy and processed foods; binds metal ions.
Why it's used. Sodium gluconate, made by fungal fermentation of glucose. Used as a metal-binder; locks up metals to stop discoloration in canned and frozen foods.

### E577 - Potassium gluconate (Other)
Potassium salt of gluconic acid.
Where you see it. Sequestrant and potassium source in fortified products.
Why it's used. Potassium-form gluconate, metal-binder and mineral fortifier. Used where the recipe needs potassium intake credit alongside metal-ion locking.

### E578 - Calcium gluconate (Other)
Calcium salt of gluconic acid.
Where you see it. Calcium fortifier in plant-based milks and dietary supplements.
Why it's used. Highly water-soluble calcium salt produced by glucose fermentation. Cleanest-tasting calcium source for fortified drinks and chewable supplements.

### E579 - Ferrous gluconate (Other)
Iron salt of gluconic acid.
Where you see it. Iron source and colour stabiliser in black olives.
Why it's used. Soluble iron(II) salt, better tolerated than ferrous sulphate, with less metallic taste. The iron in green-ripe black olives and iron-fortified drinks.

### E585 - Ferrous lactate (Other)
Iron salt of lactic acid.
Where you see it. Iron fortifier and colour stabiliser in olives.
Why it's used. Iron(II) salt of lactic acid. Highly absorbable iron picked for fortified infant cereals and fluid milk where ferrous sulphate gives off-flavours.

### E586 - 4-Hexylresorcinol (Antioxidant)
Synthetic phenol; stops shellfish blackening.
Where you see it. Prevents melanosis (black spots) on prawns and shrimp.
Why it's used. Blocks the enzyme that browns shellfish; sprayed on fresh and frozen prawns at landing to stop black-spot. Replaces sulphite dips for sulphite-allergic markets.

### E587 - Ferrous fumarate (Other)
Iron salt of fumaric acid.
Where you see it. Iron fortifier in cereals and prescription supplements.
Why it's used. High iron content with less metallic taste than ferrous sulphate, backbone of cereal, formula and tablet fortification.

### E620 - Glutamic acid (Flavour enhancer)
The free amino acid behind umami flavour.
Where you see it. Boosts savoury depth in soups, sauces and snacks.
Why it's used. Free-acid form of glutamate. Adds umami without the sodium of E621 MSG; less common because acid pH and lower solubility complicate dosing.

### E621 - MSG (Flavour enhancer)
Monosodium glutamate (MSG). A flavour enhancer.
Where you see it. Instant noodles, savoury snacks, stock cubes, ready meals, some seasoning mixes.
What the research says. EFSA reviewed MSG in 2017 and recommended an ADI of 30mg/kg body weight per day, a tighter group ADI than previously applied. The UK FSA reviewed and updated its position to align with EFSA in 2018.
Sources: EFSA Scientific Opinion (2017) · FSA position (2018)

### E622 - Monopotassium glutamate (Flavour enhancer)
Potassium salt of glutamic acid.
Where you see it. Salt-reduced umami enhancer in stocks and seasonings.
Why it's used. Potassium-form glutamate. Used in low-sodium products where MSG pushes sodium too high, same umami, potassium swapped for sodium.

### E623 - Calcium diglutamate (Flavour enhancer)
Calcium salt of glutamic acid.
Where you see it. Salt-reduced umami enhancer in stocks and seasonings.
Why it's used. Calcium-form glutamate, two glutamate ions per calcium. Used in renal-diet reformulations where neither E621 nor E622 fits. Niche; cost premium.

### E624 - Monoammonium glutamate (Flavour enhancer)
Ammonium salt of glutamic acid.
Where you see it. Umami enhancer in salt-restricted ready meals.
Why it's used. Ammonium-form glutamate. Rarely seen in retail foods, used mainly in industrial savoury bases. EU-permitted but volume sits far below E621/E622.

### E625 - Magnesium diglutamate (Flavour enhancer)
Magnesium salt of glutamic acid.
Where you see it. Umami enhancer in salt-restricted ready meals and seasonings.
Why it's used. Magnesium-form glutamate. Niche, used where sodium, potassium and calcium are all capped. Expensive; almost never on EU retail labels.

### E626 - Guanylic acid (Flavour enhancer)
Free guanylic acid; ribonucleotide.
Where you see it. Boosts umami; usually paired with MSG and inosinate.
What the research says. Adds purines that can worsen gout flares.
Sources: JECFA (1993) · EU (2011)

### E627 - Disodium guanylate (Flavour enhancer)
Sodium salt of guanylic acid; ribonucleotide.
Where you see it. Boosts umami; multiplies MSG effect when paired with E631.
What the research says. Adds purines that can worsen gout flares.
Sources: EFSA (2017) · JECFA (2003) · Yamaguchi (1979)

### E628 - Dipotassium guanylate (Flavour enhancer)
Potassium salt of guanylic acid.
Where you see it. Salt-reduced umami booster; paired with MSG analogues.
What the research says. Adds purines that worsen gout flares in susceptible people.
Sources: JECFA (1993) · EFSA (2007) · EU (2011)

### E629 - Calcium guanylate (Flavour enhancer)
Calcium salt of guanylic acid.
Where you see it. Salt-reduced umami booster in stocks and seasonings.
What the research says. Adds purines that worsen gout flares in susceptible people.
Sources: JECFA (1993) · EFSA (2007) · EU (2011)

### E630 - Inosinic acid (Flavour enhancer)
Free inosinic acid; ribonucleotide.
Where you see it. Boosts umami; usually paired with MSG and guanylate.
What the research says. Adds purines that worsen gout flares in susceptible people.
Sources: JECFA (1993) · EU (2011)

### E631 - Disodium inosinate (Flavour enhancer)
Sodium salt of inosinic acid; ribonucleotide.
Where you see it. Boosts umami; multiplies MSG effect when paired with E627.
What the research says. Adds purines that worsen gout flares in susceptible people. If you've had a gout attack, this and the rest of the 627-635 family stack up across crisps, instant noodles and stock cubes.
Sources: EFSA (2017) · JECFA (2003) · Yamaguchi (1979)

### E632 - Dipotassium inosinate (Flavour enhancer)
Potassium salt of inosinic acid.
Where you see it. Salt-reduced umami booster; paired with glutamates.
What the research says. Adds purines that worsen gout flares in susceptible people.
Sources: JECFA (1993) · EFSA (2007) · EU (2011)

### E633 - Calcium inosinate (Flavour enhancer)
Calcium salt of inosinic acid.
Where you see it. Salt-reduced umami booster in stocks and seasonings.
What the research says. Adds purines that worsen gout flares in susceptible people.
Sources: JECFA (1993) · EFSA (2007) · EU (2011)

### E634 - Calcium 5'-ribonucleotides (Flavour enhancer)
Calcium salts of mixed ribonucleotides.
Where you see it. Salt-reduced umami booster in salt-restricted ready meals.
What the research says. Adds purines that worsen gout flares in susceptible people.
Sources: JECFA (1993) · EFSA (2007) · EU (2011)

### E635 - Disodium 5'-ribonucleotides (Flavour enhancer)
50/50 mix of E627 and E631; the umami booster pair.
Where you see it. The flavour enhancer combo on most savoury snack labels.
What the research says. Adds purines that worsen gout flares in susceptible people. Standard pairing with MSG on UK crisps, instant noodles and stock cubes, the purine load is cumulative across a pack.
Sources: EFSA (2017) · JECFA (2003) · Yamaguchi (1979)

### E640 - Glycine (Flavour enhancer)
Simplest amino acid; mildly sweet.
Where you see it. Flavour modifier in low-sodium foods and dietary products.
Why it's used. Smallest amino acid; mildly sweet with a soft savoury edge. Rounds flavour in cured meats, soy sauces and sugar-reduced confectionery.

### E641 - L-leucine (Flavour enhancer)
Branched-chain amino acid.
Where you see it. Flavour modifier in some sweetener tablets and chewing gums.
Why it's used. used as a flow agent and flavour modifier in tableted sweeteners and pressed powders. Almost never on retail food labels.

### E642 - Lysine hydrochloride (Flavour enhancer)
Essential amino acid as its hydrochloride salt.
Where you see it. Flavour modifier and protein-fortifier in some functional foods.
Why it's used. Salt form of the essential amino acid lysine. Used as a flavour modifier and to fortify cereal proteins. Mostly seen in feed and supplements.

### E643 - Calcium 5'-inosinate (Flavour enhancer)
Calcium salt of inosinic acid.
Where you see it. Boosts savoury flavour; pairs with MSG in seasonings and stocks.
Why it's used. (IMP), duplicate listing of E633 in some legacy references. Niche savoury enhancer; very limited retail-label use today.

### E647 - Calcium lactobionate (Other)
Calcium-lactobionate salt.
Where you see it. Calcium fortifier and stabiliser in some dairy and supplement products.
Why it's used. Calcium salt of lactobionic acid. Niche stabiliser in long-life dairy desserts and instant pudding mixes; very rarely seen on UK retail labels.

### E648 - Magnesium gluconate (Other)
Magnesium-gluconate salt.
Where you see it. Magnesium fortifier in supplements and functional drinks.
Why it's used. Magnesium salt of gluconic acid. Soluble, permitted at current levels magnesium source, gentler on the gut than magnesium oxide and more palatable than magnesium chloride.

### E650 - Zinc acetate (Other)
Zinc salt of acetic acid.
Where you see it. Flavour modifier and zinc fortifier in chewing gum and supplements.
Why it's used. Soluble zinc salt for lozenges, supplements and drinks. Chosen over zinc oxide for fast acidic-pH dissolution; cheaper than zinc bisglycinate.

### E900 - Dimethyl polysiloxane (Other)
Silicone-based anti-foaming agent.
Where you see it. Stops foam during frying-oil use and beverage filling.
Why it's used. Silicone anti-foam for fryer oils, jam-boilers and beverage filling lines. Tiny dose knocks down foam without flavour impact; trace residues remain.

### E901 - Beeswax (Other)
Natural wax from honeybee hives.
Where you see it. Coats sweets, fruit and pharmaceuticals for a glossy finish.
Why it's used. Natural beeswax. Long-standing glaze for confectionery, dried fruit and supplement coatings. Picked when a brand wants the 'natural' coating story.

### E902 - Candelilla wax (Other)
Plant wax from candelilla shrub leaves.
Where you see it. Glazing agent on confectionery and fruit.
Why it's used. Hard plant wax from Mexican Euphorbia shrubs. Glaze for chewing gum and chocolate. Vegan-friendly alternative to beeswax and shellac.

### E903 - Carnauba wax (Other)
Plant wax from Brazilian carnauba palm leaves.
Where you see it. Gives confectionery, fruit and pills a glossy coating.
Why it's used. Hardest plant wax in commercial use, from Brazilian palm leaves. Standard glaze on coated sweets, chocolate and supplement tablets, high-shine, scratch-resistant.

### E904 - Shellac (Other)
Resin secreted by the lac scale insect.
Where you see it. Glazes apples, sweets, pills and chocolate.
Why it's used. Resin secreted by the lac insect on Indian and Thai trees. High-gloss glaze on coated sweets, fruit and tablets. Not vegan, but accepted as natural.

### E905 - Microcrystalline wax (Other)
Refined petroleum-derived wax.
Where you see it. Glazes confectionery and chewing gum.
Why it's used. Petroleum-derived wax, refined paraffin used as glaze on chewing gum and cheese rinds. Cheaper than carnauba; softer, tackier coating ideal for gum bases.

### E906 - Benzoin gum (Other)
Aromatic resin from Styrax tree wounds.
Where you see it. Glazing agent and flavour fixative in confectionery.
Why it's used. Resin from Styrax trees, mainly used as a flavour-holder. Not currently authorised as a direct food additive in the EU; legacy code only.

### E907 - Hydrogenated poly-1-decene (Other)
Synthetic hydrocarbon polymer.
Where you see it. Glazing agent on dried fruit and confectionery.
Why it's used. Synthetic hydrocarbon, glazing and dust-binding agent on dried fruit and confectionery. Niche use where mineral wax tackiness is unwanted.

### E908 - Rice bran wax (Other)
Plant wax from rice bran oil refining.
Where you see it. Glazing agent on confectionery and chocolate coatings.
Why it's used. Plant wax from rice-bran oil refining. Niche glaze for confectionery and supplement coatings; vegan alternative to beeswax and shellac.

### E910 - Wax esters (Other)
Long-chain wax mixture.
Where you see it. Glazing agent on citrus fruits and confectionery.
Why it's used. Synthetic ester waxes used to glaze fresh fruit. Restricted in the UK/EU to citrus, melons and certain treenuts.

### E912 - Montan acid esters (Other)
Wax from lignite (brown coal).
Where you see it. Glazing agent on citrus fruit surfaces.
Why it's used. , high-melting glaze for fresh citrus. Picked where carnauba's softening behaviour is a problem in transit.

### E913 - Lanolin (Other)
Wax-like substance from sheep wool.
Where you see it. Glazing agent on confectionery; rarely used in food.
What the research says. Not allowed in UK or EU food.
Sources: JECFA (1969) · EU (2011)

### E914 - Oxidised polyethylene wax (Other)
Oxidised polyethylene wax.
Where you see it. Glazing agent on citrus fruit surfaces.
Why it's used. Surface-oxidised polyethylene wax. Used as a coating on fresh citrus, melons and pineapples to slow water loss.

### E915 - Esters of colophonium (Other)
Glycerol esters of pine-wood rosin.
Where you see it. Suspends citrus-flavour oils in soft drinks and weighting agent in cloudy beverages.
Why it's used. Esters of pine-resin colophony (rosin), surface treatment on fresh citrus fruit. Provides a thin glossy coating that slows water loss without changing peel flavour.

### E916 - Calcium iodate (Other)
Calcium-iodine salt.
Where you see it. Iodine fortifier in salt and bread; rare in UK food.
Why it's used. Iodine salt for fortifying salt and bread. More heat-stable than potassium iodide. Not on the EU general additives register; used in non-EU iodisation programmes.

### E917 - Potassium iodate (Other)
Potassium-iodine salt.
Where you see it. Iodine fortifier in salt; common in non-EU iodised salt.
Why it's used. Most common iodine fortificant for salt globally. Cheap, stable in humid climates; backbone of national salt iodisation programmes. Not on the EU additives register.

### E918 - Nitrogen oxides (Other) · Banned in UK food
Nitrogen-oxide gas blend.
Where you see it. Was used as a flour-improver; not currently authorised in UK/EU food.
What the research says. Not authorised in UK/EU food.
Sources: EU (2011) · JECFA (1973)

### E919 - Nitrosyl chloride (Other) · Banned in UK food
Nitrosyl-chloride gas; flour bleach.
Where you see it. Was used as a flour-bleaching agent; not authorised in UK/EU food.
What the research says. Not allowed in UK or EU food.
Sources: EU (2011) · JECFA (1973)

### E920 - L-Cysteine (Other)
Sulphur-containing amino acid.
Where you see it. Speeds up dough development in supermarket bread.
Why it's used. Amino acid that relaxes gluten so industrial bakeries can shorten mixing time. Older supplies came from human hair or duck feathers.

### E921 - L-Cystine (Other)
Oxidised dimer of cysteine.
Where you see it. Flour treatment agent in baked goods.
Why it's used. Stable solid form of cysteine, dough conditioner that relaxes gluten and shortens industrial bread mixing time. Easier to dose than cysteine itself.

### E924a - Potassium bromate (Other) · IARC Group 2B
Synthetic flour-improver.
Where you see it. Was used to bleach and strengthen flour; banned in the UK/EU.
What the research says. EU rule 1129/2011 does not list E924a as an authorised additive; ban remains in force.
Sources: IARC (1986) · EU (1990) · EU (2011) · Kurokawa (1982)

### E924b - Calcium bromate (Other) · Banned in UK food
Calcium analogue of potassium bromate.
Where you see it. Was used as a flour bleaching agent; banned in the UK/EU.
What the research says. Banned in UK/EU bread flour; rat studies linked it to kidney tumours. Still allowed as a flour treatment in some countries. Imported baked goods are the main route of exposure.
Sources: IARC (1986) · EU (1990) · EU (2011)

### E925 - Chlorine (Other) · Banned in UK food
Chlorine gas; processing aid.
Where you see it. Was used to bleach flour; current UK use restricted.
What the research says. Pulled from most UK food uses.
Sources: EU (2011) · FSA (2007) · JECFA (1973)

### E926 - Chlorine dioxide (Other) · Banned in UK food
Chlorine dioxide gas; processing aid.
Where you see it. Was used to bleach flour; not authorised in UK/EU food.
What the research says. Not allowed in UK or EU food.
Sources: EU (2011) · JECFA (1973)

### E927 - Azodicarbonamide (Other) · Banned in UK food
Synthetic flour-improver and dough-conditioner.
Where you see it. Was used in commercial bread; not authorised in UK/EU food.
What the research says. Pulled from UK/EU food in 2005 over breakdown to semicarbazide.
Sources: EU (2005) · JECFA (1999) · EFSA (2005) · EU (2011)

### E927a - Azodicarbonamide (Other) · Banned in UK food
Synthetic dough conditioner; ADA.
Where you see it. Bleaches flour and strengthens dough; banned in EU/UK food.
What the research says. Pulled from EU/UK food in 2005 over breakdown to semicarbazide. Breaks down during baking to semicarbazide, which has weak DNA-damage signals in animal studies. Still used in some imported breads.
Sources: EU (2005) · JECFA (1999) · EU (2011)

### E927b - Carbamide (Other)
Urea; nitrogen-rich molecule.
Where you see it. Yeast nutrient in chewing gum and bread.
Why it's used. Urea, yeast nutrient in bread doughs and browning agent in pretzels. EU authorisation only for chewing gum.

### E928 - Benzoyl peroxide (Other) · Banned in UK food
Synthetic flour bleaching agent.
Where you see it. Bleaches flour to a brighter white; banned in the UK/EU.
What the research says. Banned in UK/EU food; can appear on imported US baked goods. Pulled from UK/EU bread flour in 1995 (EU food-additive positive list). Still permitted in US flour, so check labels on imported bread and bagels.
Sources: EU (2011) · JECFA (1973)

### E930 - Calcium peroxide (Other) · Banned in UK food
Calcium-peroxide flour-improver.
Where you see it. Was used as a dough-conditioner; not authorised in UK/EU food.
What the research says. Not allowed in UK or EU food.
Sources: EU (2011) · JECFA (1973)

### E938 - Argon (Other)
Inert noble gas.
Where you see it. Packaging gas; displaces oxygen in wine bottles and crisp packs.
Why it's used. Unreactive noble gas used to displace oxygen in wine, snacks and ready meals. Denser than nitrogen, so it sits on top of liquids.

### E939 - Helium (Other)
Inert noble gas.
Where you see it. Packaging and propellant gas; rarely used as a food additive.
Why it's used. Unreactive noble gas, packaging and propellant. Lighter than air; used in foam-stabilised dispensing and leak detection in modified-atmosphere packaging.

### E940 - Dichlorodifluoromethane (Other) · Banned in UK food
Chlorofluorocarbon refrigerant gas.
Where you see it. Was used as a propellant; banned under the Montreal Protocol.
What the research says. Banned worldwide as an ozone-depleting CFC. Phased out under the Montreal Protocol over ozone-layer concerns. No longer authorised as a food propellant in the UK/EU.
Sources: Montreal (1987) · EU (2011)

### E941 - Nitrogen (Other)
Inert atmospheric gas.
Where you see it. Modified atmosphere packaging in crisps, salads and meat.
Why it's used. Cheap, unreactive gas (just air, distilled). Pushes oxygen out of crisp, salad and ready-meal packs to extend shelf life. Also pressurises wine and beer dispensers.

### E942 - Nitrous oxide (Other)
Inert propellant gas.
Where you see it. Whipping-cream propellant in aerosol cans.
Why it's used. Soluble propellant gas, the standard charge in whipped-cream canisters. Dissolves into fat then expands on release to make foam.

### E943a - Butane (Other)
Hydrocarbon propellant gas.
Where you see it. Propellant in cooking-oil and emulsion sprays.
Why it's used. Liquid hydrocarbon propellant for vegetable-oil cooking sprays. Cheap petrochemical by-product; restricted to specified spray categories in the EU.

### E943b - Isobutane (Other)
Hydrocarbon propellant gas.
Where you see it. Propellant in cooking-oil and emulsion sprays.
Why it's used. Branched butane propellant for food sprays. Softer spray pattern than n-butane; same petrochemical supply chain.

### E944 - Propane (Other)
Hydrocarbon propellant gas.
Where you see it. Propellant in cooking-oil and emulsion sprays.
Why it's used. Liquid hydrocarbon propellant for cooking-oil sprays. Cheap from natural-gas processing; finer spray than butane.

### E946 - Octafluorocyclobutane (Other) · Banned in UK food
Fluorinated propellant gas.
Where you see it. Was used as a propellant; not currently authorised in UK/EU food.
What the research says. Not allowed in UK or EU food.
Sources: EU (2011)

### E948 - Oxygen (Other)
Atmospheric gas.
Where you see it. Packaging gas to keep red meat looking bright.
What the research says. EU allows E948 as a packaging gas in any amount the recipe needs across food categories.
Sources: EFSA (1990) · EU (2011) · EFSA (2007)

### E949 - Hydrogen (Other)
Lightest gas; food-grade only.
Where you see it. Carrier gas; rarely used directly as an additive.
Why it's used. Used as a packaging gas in some modified-atmosphere systems and as the reactive gas that hardens vegetable oils. Rare on consumer packaging.

### E950 - Acesulfame K (Sweetener)
Acesulfame K, a sweetener about 200 times sweeter than sugar, often blended with others.
Where you see it. Diet and no-added-sugar drinks, table-top sweeteners, sugar-free gum and desserts.
What the research says. EFSA reviewed it in 2025 and set an acceptable daily intake of 15mg per kg of body weight. The WHO advises against relying on any non-sugar sweetener for weight control.
Sources: EFSA re-evaluation (2025) · WHO non-sugar sweeteners guideline (2023)

### E951 - Aspartame (Sweetener) · IARC Group 2B
Aspartame. A high-intensity sweetener about 200 times sweeter than sugar.
Where you see it. Diet fizzy drinks, sugar-free squashes, chewing gum, low-calorie yoghurts and desserts, some tabletop sweeteners.
What the research says. IARC reclassified aspartame as Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans) in 2023. The same week, JECFA reaffirmed the existing acceptable daily intake. The UK FSA made no change to permitted use. PKU sufferers should avoid (phenylalanine).
Sources: IARC Monograph (2023) · WHO/JECFA (2023) · FSA position (2023)

### E952 - Cyclamate (Sweetener)
Cyclamate, a sweetener around 30 to 50 times sweeter than sugar, usually blended with saccharin.
Where you see it. Table-top sweeteners and some diet drinks.
What the research says. Banned in the US since 1970 after bladder tumours in rats, a finding later studies could not repeat, but still permitted in the UK. Its acceptable daily intake of 7mg per kg of body weight reflects gut conversion to cyclohexylamine. The WHO advises against using sweeteners for weight control.
Sources: EFSA ADI · FDA ban (1970) · WHO guideline (2023)

### E953 - Isomalt (Sweetener)
Sugar alcohol blend; about half as sweet as sugar.
Where you see it. Bulk sweetener in sugar-free chocolate and confectionery.
What the research says. Tolerance similar to other sugar alcohols; gut symptoms above around 30 g/day in adults.
Sources: JECFA (2003) · Lebenthal (2008) · EU (2008)

### E954 - Saccharin (Sweetener)
Saccharin, the oldest artificial sweetener, around 300 times sweeter than sugar.
Where you see it. Table-top sweeteners, diet drinks; often blended with other sweeteners.
What the research says. It spent two decades on the US carcinogen list before removal in 2000, once the bladder tumours were shown to be specific to male rats. EFSA’s 2024 review set an acceptable daily intake of 9mg per kg of body weight. The WHO advises against using sweeteners for weight control.
Sources: EFSA re-evaluation (2024) · US NTP delisting (2000) · WHO guideline (2023)

### E955 - Sucralose (Sweetener)
Sucralose. A high-intensity sweetener made by chlorinating sucrose.
Where you see it. Sugar-free yoghurts, diet drinks, sugar-free squashes, tabletop sweeteners, some protein bars.
What the research says. EFSA approved in 2000; ADI set at 15mg/kg body weight. The 2022 NutriNet-Santé observational study reported a small association with cancer risk that EFSA judged insufficient to change the existing safety assessment.
Sources: EFSA Scientific Opinion (2000) · WHO non-sugar sweeteners guideline (2023)

### E956 - Alitame (Sweetener) · Banned in UK food
Synthetic dipeptide sweetener; ~2,000x sugar.
Where you see it. Was used in diet drinks; mainly seen on imported labels now.
What the research says. Not allowed in UK or EU food.
Sources: JECFA (1996) · EU (2008)

### E957 - Thaumatin (Sweetener)
Sweet-tasting protein from the West African katemfe fruit.
Where you see it. Sweetens and rounds out flavour in gum, sweets and dairy.
Why it's used. Around 2000 times sweeter than sugar and a flavour enhancer; lingers and masks bitterness, so it is used in tiny amounts alongside other sweeteners.

### E959 - Neohesperidine DC (Sweetener)
Modified flavanone from bitter orange peel.
Where you see it. Sweetener; ~1500-1800x sugar; lingering liquorice aftertaste.
Why it's used. Citrus-derived sweetener ~1,500x sugar with a long, slightly menthol after-taste. Niche use in chewing gum, mouthwash and bitter-mask blends.

### E960 - Stevia (Sweetener)
A sweetener made of steviol glycosides extracted from stevia leaves. UK labels now use E960a for the leaf-extracted form.
Where you see it. Sugar-reduced soft drinks, table-top sweeteners, flavoured yoghurts, chewing gum and desserts.
Why it's used. Steviol glycosides from stevia leaf, ~200x sucrose. Heat-stable and zero-glycaemic. Main 'natural' replacement for aspartame/sucralose; lingering bitter after-note.

### E961 - Neotame (Sweetener)
Synthetic sweetener about 7,000-13,000x sweeter than sugar.
Where you see it. Sweetens diet drinks, dairy and tabletop blends.
Why it's used. Aspartame derivative ~7,000-13,000x sucrose. Heat-stable and PKU-warning-free. Niche use in baked goods and sugar-free dairy where aspartame degrades.

### E962 - Aspartame-acesulfame salt (Sweetener) · IARC Group 2B
Salt of aspartame and acesulfame combined.
Where you see it. Sweetens diet drinks at lower doses than each on its own.
What the research says. NutriNet-Santé long-term study linked higher artificial-sweetener intake (incl. aspartame) to modestly higher cancer risk; observational.
Sources: JECFA (2000) · EU (2008) · Debras (2022)

### E963 - Thaumatin (Sweetener)
Plant-derived protein sweetener; ~2,000x sugar sweetness.
Where you see it. Sweetens chewing gum, dairy and pharmaceutical products.
Why it's used. Protein sweetener from West African katemfe fruit, ~2,000x sucrose with a slow lingering onset. Mainly used as a flavour modifier and bitter mask in low-cal drinks.

### E964 - Polyglycitol syrup (Sweetener)
Polyol sweetener mixture from hydrogenated starch.
Where you see it. Bulk sweetener in sugar-free chocolate and confectionery.
What the research says. Polyol-syrup blends pull water into the gut at higher doses; threshold varies by individual.
Sources: EFSA (2009) · Lebenthal (2008) · EU (2008)

### E965 - Maltitol (Sweetener)
Sugar alcohol about 90% as sweet as sugar.
Where you see it. Used in sugar-free chocolate; closest mouthfeel to sugar.
What the research says. Maltitol gut tolerance around 20-40 g/day in adults; commonly responsible for "sugar-free chocolate" diarrhoea.
Sources: JECFA (2003) · Lebenthal (2008) · EU (2008)

### E966 - Lactitol (Sweetener)
Sugar alcohol about 35% as sweet as sugar.
Where you see it. Bulk sweetener in sugar-free sweets and chocolate.
What the research says. Lactitol's osmotic laxative effect is the basis for its medical-laxative authorisation; food doses much lower.
Sources: JECFA (2003) · Lebenthal (2008) · EU (2008)

### E967 - Xylitol (Sweetener)
Sugar alcohol with the same sweetness as sugar.
Where you see it. Used in sugar-free gum, mints and dental products to reduce cavities.
What the research says. Large amounts can cause bloating, wind and diarrhoea. Sugar alcohol. Most people tolerate small amounts; over about 20-30 g in a sitting tends to loosen stools. Keep it away from dogs, even a small lick can drop their blood sugar dangerously and damage the liver.
Sources: JECFA (2003) · Lebenthal (2008) · EU (2008)

### E968 - Erythritol (Sweetener)
Sugar alcohol with almost zero calories.
Where you see it. Sweetens diet products without affecting blood sugar or teeth.
What the research says. Linked to raised heart and stroke rates in long-term observation.
Sources: EFSA (2015) · Witkowski (2023) · Mazi (2017) · EU (2008)

### E969 - Advantame (Sweetener)
Synthetic sweetener about 20,000x sweeter than sugar.
Where you see it. Sweetens diet drinks at vanishingly low doses.
Why it's used. Aspartame derivative ~20,000x sucrose, the most potent approved sweetener. Tiny use levels mean phenylalanine load is below the PKU labelling threshold.

### E999 - Quillaia extract (Other)
Saponin extract from the bark of the South American soapbark tree.
Where you see it. Makes and holds the foam in cream sodas and slush drinks.
Why it's used. Natural foaming agent; its saponins lower surface tension to build a stable head in fizzy and frozen drinks at tiny doses.

### E1000 - Cholic acid (Other)
Bile acid; emulsifier and cheese-ripening agent.
Where you see it. Was used in cheese ripening; rare in modern UK food.
Why it's used. Bile acid from animal sources, occasionally used as an emulsifier in dried egg-white powders. Not in current EU food register.

### E1100 - Amylase (Other)
Starch-digesting enzyme.
Where you see it. Improves dough handling and crumb in bread and bakery.
Why it's used. Starch-cutting enzyme. Cheap to ferment from microbes; used in baking, brewing and starch-syrup making. Processing aid, rarely on labels.

### E1101 - Protease (Other)
Protein-cutting enzyme; tenderiser.
Where you see it. Tenderises meat, clarifies beer and breaks down gluten.
Why it's used. Protein-cutting enzyme. Tenderises meat, clarifies beer, softens bread crumb. Sourced from microbes, papaya or pineapple.

### E1102 - Glucose oxidase (Other)
Enzyme that converts glucose into gluconic acid.
Where you see it. Strengthens dough; removes oxygen from packaging in egg products.
Why it's used. Enzyme that mops up oxygen in dried egg products and strengthens bread dough.

### E1103 - Invertase (Other)
Enzyme that splits sucrose into glucose and fructose.
Where you see it. Keeps soft-centred sweets liquid; used in fondants.
Why it's used. Yeast enzyme that splits table sugar into glucose and fructose. Behind the runny centre of soft-fondant chocolates.

### E1104 - Lipase (Other)
Fat-digesting enzyme.
Where you see it. Develops cheese flavour and improves dough handling in bread.
Why it's used. Fat-cutting enzyme. Develops flavour in cheese (especially Italian-style), modifies dairy fats and improves bread dough stability.

### E1105 - Lysozyme (Preservative)
Enzyme from egg white.
Where you see it. Stops late-blowing in hard cheeses; used in some Italian cheeses.
What the research says. Contains egg, declared as an allergen on UK packs.
Sources: EFSA (2006) · EFSA (2007) · EU (2011)

### E1106 - Lactase (Other)
Enzyme that splits lactose into glucose and galactose.
Where you see it. Used to make lactose-free milk and dairy products.
Why it's used. Enzyme that splits milk sugar (lactose). Used to make lactose-free milk and reduced-lactose dairy.

### E1107 - Amylase (Other)
Enzyme that breaks down starch into sugars.
Where you see it. Used in baking, brewing and starch-syrup production.
Why it's used. Older spec for amylase enzymes (same role as E1100). Starch breakdown in baking and brewing; processing aid only.

### E1108 - Cellulase (Other)
Enzyme that breaks down cellulose.
Where you see it. Improves yield and clarity in fruit-juice processing.
Why it's used. Plant-cell-wall-cutting enzyme. Used to clear fruit juice and release flavour from spices and herbs.

### E1109 - Pectinase (Other)
Enzyme that breaks down pectin.
Where you see it. Clarifies fruit juices and improves wine yield.
Why it's used. Pectin-cleaving fungal enzyme. Used to clarify fruit juices, raise extraction yields and strip cloud from cider. Processing aid, not labelled.

### E1110 - Bromelain (Other)
Protein-digesting enzyme from pineapple.
Where you see it. Tenderises meat in marinades and clarifies beer.
What the research says. Case reports of severe allergic reactions to dietary bromelain in pineapple-allergic adults; rare but documented.
Sources: EFSA (2015) · Pavan (2012) · EU (2008)

### E1111 - Papain (Other)
Protein-digesting enzyme from papaya.
Where you see it. Tenderises meat and clarifies beer.
What the research says. Allergic reactions to dietary papain documented in atopic adults; uncommon but recognised.
Sources: EFSA (2015) · EMA (2008) · EU (2008)

### E1112 - Phytase (Other)
Enzyme that breaks down phytate.
Where you see it. Improves mineral availability in plant-based and bran-rich foods.
Why it's used. Microbial enzyme that breaks down phytic acid in cereal flours, freeing bound minerals. Used in wholemeal bread and infant cereals to raise iron and zinc absorption.

### E1117 - Lysozyme (Preservative)
Egg-white enzyme with antimicrobial activity.
Where you see it. Stops late-blowing in hard cheeses like Grana Padano and Provolone.
What the research says. Egg-derived lysozyme triggers allergen declaration whether listed as E1105 or E1117.
Sources: EFSA (2006) · EU (2011)

### E1200 - Polydextrose (Other)
Synthetic soluble fibre from glucose and sorbitol.
Where you see it. Bulks out reduced-sugar foods; ~1 kcal/g vs 4 for sugar.
Why it's used. Synthetic glucose polymer for low-calorie bulking in sugar-reduced foods, ~1 kcal/g vs sucrose's 4 kcal/g. Adds soluble fibre; replaces sugar bulk in baked goods.

### E1201 - Polyvinylpyrrolidone (Other)
A synthetic polymer used to coat tablets.
Where you see it. Coats and binds supplement tablets and sweetener tablets.
Why it's used. Forms a smooth film and binds tablet powders; restricted to food supplements and tablet sweeteners. A large polymer that is poorly absorbed.

### E1202 - Polyvinylpolypyrrolidone (Other)
The cross-linked, insoluble form of povidone (E1201).
Where you see it. Coats supplement tablets, and clarifies beer and wine then is filtered out.
Why it's used. Insoluble polymer; in drinks it grabs haze-forming compounds and is filtered off, leaving little behind. In supplements it coats tablets.

### E1203 - Polyvinyl alcohol (Other)
A synthetic film-forming polymer used to coat capsules.
Where you see it. Glazes supplement capsules and tablets as a moisture barrier.
Why it's used. Forms a flexible moisture and oxygen barrier on supplement capsules and masks taste; restricted to food supplements. Not absorbed from the gut.

### E1204 - Pullulan (Other)
A polysaccharide made by fermenting starch with a food-grade fungus.
Where you see it. Forms plant-based capsule shells and breath-freshener strips.
Why it's used. Forms a clear, oxygen-tight film; a gelatin-free capsule shell and the dissolving film in breath strips. Broken down by gut enzymes and fermented in the colon.

### E1205 - Basic methacrylate copolymer (Other)
A synthetic film-coating polymer for supplement tablets.
Where you see it. Coats supplement tablets to protect them from moisture.
Why it's used. A Eudragit-type coating polymer used to moisture-proof and taste-mask supplement tablets and capsules. Restricted to solid food supplements.

### E1206 - Neutral methacrylate copolymer (Other)
A synthetic film-coating polymer for supplement tablets.
Where you see it. Coats supplement tablets and capsules.
Why it's used. A Eudragit-type neutral coating polymer; an inert film on supplement tablets. Restricted to solid food supplements and not absorbed.

### E1207 - Anionic methacrylate copolymer (Other)
A synthetic enteric coating polymer for supplements.
Where you see it. Gives supplement tablets an acid-resistant coating.
Why it's used. A Eudragit-type acid-resistant coating, so a supplement passes the stomach and releases in the gut. Restricted to solid food supplements.

### E1208 - Polyvinylpyrrolidone-vinyl acetate copolymer (Other)
A synthetic binding and coating polymer for supplements.
Where you see it. Binds and coats supplement tablets.
Why it's used. A copovidone binder and film-former for supplement tablets; poorly absorbed and largely passed in faeces. Restricted to solid food supplements.

### E1209 - Polyvinyl alcohol-polyethylene glycol graft copolymer (Other)
A synthetic film-coating polymer for supplements.
Where you see it. Coats supplement tablets as an instant-dissolve film.
Why it's used. A fast-dissolving film-coating for supplement tablets; not absorbed from the gut. Restricted to solid food supplements.

### E1401 - Acid-treated starch (Other)
Starch treated with mineral acid.
Where you see it. Thinner consistency for jelly gums and confectionery.
Why it's used. Plain starch broken down with mild acid, a thinner-flowing thickener for confectionery gums and panned coatings.

### E1402 - Alkaline-treated starch (Other)
Starch treated with mineral alkali.
Where you see it. Improved cooking and binding in canned and dry-mix foods.
Why it's used. Plain starch treated with hydroxide to lower the temperature it gels at. Used in instant puddings and dry mixes that thicken in cold or warm liquid.

### E1403 - Bleached starch (Other)
Starch lightened with hydrogen peroxide or chlorine.
Where you see it. Whitens dusting starch and improves clarity in fillings.
Why it's used. Plain starch treated with peroxide to remove colour and protein traces. Used where a bright white matters, sugar-coated sweets, marshmallows, batter mixes.

### E1404 - Oxidised starch (Other)
Starch oxidised with sodium hypochlorite.
Where you see it. Improves clarity and binding in salad dressings and batters.
Why it's used. Native starch oxidised with hypochlorite, lowers viscosity, improves clarity. Cheap binder for batter coatings and dairy desserts.

### E1405 - Enzyme-treated starches (Other)
Starch broken down by amylases.
Where you see it. Sweetener carrier and bulking agent in dry mixes and confectionery.
Why it's used. Plain starch broken down with amylase enzymes. Used as a stable, low-thickness binder in clear soups, glazes and pharmaceutical-grade syrups.

### E1410 - Monostarch phosphate (Other)
Starch cross-linked with phosphate.
Where you see it. Stabilises canned, frozen and reheated foods.
Why it's used. Phosphate-stabilised starch, improves cold-water swelling and freeze-thaw stability. Used in instant soups and refrigerated sauces.

### E1411 - Distarch glycerol (Other)
Starch cross-linked with glycerol.
Where you see it. Texture stabiliser in canned and frozen foods.
Why it's used. Glycerol-cross-linked starch, heat, acid and stir-stable. Used in pressure-cook-stable soups and gravies; less common than phosphate cross-links because pricier.

### E1412 - Distarch phosphate (Other)
Starch cross-linked with phosphate (di-starch).
Where you see it. Withstands freezing and reheating in ready meals and sauces.
Why it's used. Starch double-bridged with phosphate, heat- and acid-stable thickener for canned foods and retort-pouch ready meals.

### E1413 - Phosphated distarch phosphate (Other)
Doubly phosphate-cross-linked starch.
Where you see it. Heat- and acid-stable thickener in canned soups and pie fillings.
Why it's used. Modified starch cross-linked and stabilised on both bridge and side chain. Stable under heat, acid, stirring and freeze-thaw; common in chilled ready meals.

### E1414 - Acetylated distarch phosphate (Other)
Acetylated cross-linked phosphate starch.
Where you see it. Stabilises sauces, dressings and frozen ready meals.
Why it's used. Phosphate cross-link plus acetyl side chains, combines retort stability with a smoother mouthfeel and clearer paste than plain E1412.

### E1420 - Acetylated starch (Other)
Acetylated starch.
Where you see it. Improves freeze-thaw stability in sauces and frozen desserts.
Why it's used. Native starch with acetyl groups added, lowers gelatinisation temperature and improves clarity. Used in instant noodles, batter mixes and dairy desserts.

### E1422 - Acetylated distarch adipate (Other)
Acetylated cross-linked adipate starch.
Where you see it. Heat- and acid-stable thickener in canned soups and pie fillings.
Why it's used. Modified starch with strong shear and freeze-thaw stability. Common thickener in chilled and frozen ready meals where the sauce must survive reheating.

### E1423 - Acetylated distarch glycerol (Other)
Acetylated cross-linked glycerol starch.
Where you see it. Stabilises sauces, dressings and frozen ready meals.
Why it's used. Modified starch, heat- and stir-stable thickener with a clearer paste than acetylated phosphates. Niche use in jams, fruit preparations and clear sauces.

### E1430 - Distarch glycerine (Other)
Cross-linked starch with glycerol bridges.
Where you see it. Stabilises ready meals and sauces against freeze-thaw damage.
Why it's used. Glycerine-cross-linked starch, improves heat and acid stability without acetylation. Niche thickener in canned soups and acidic dressings.

### E1440 - Hydroxypropyl starch (Other)
Hydroxypropyl starch.
Where you see it. Improves freeze-thaw stability in frozen foods and dressings.
Why it's used. Modified starch, improves clarity, freeze-thaw stability and cold-water swelling. Common thickener in instant desserts, salad dressings and frozen pie fillings.

### E1442 - Hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate (Other)
Hydroxypropyl cross-linked phosphate starch.
Where you see it. Stabilises ready meals, sauces and frozen desserts.
Why it's used. Modified starch with best-in-class freeze-thaw and acid stability. Default thickener for chilled dressings, instant soups and yoghurt fruit preps.

### E1450 - Starch sodium octenyl succinate (Other)
Modified starch with both water-loving and oil-loving ends.
Where you see it. Emulsifies flavour oils in drinks and encapsulates flavours.
Why it's used. , so it works as an emulsifier. Used to encapsulate flavour oils in dry beverage and seasoning mixes.

### E1451 - Acetylated oxidised starch (Thickener / Emulsifier)
A chemically modified starch thickener.
Where you see it. Thickens and stabilises sauces, fillings and processed foods.
Why it's used. Starch treated to thicken cold, resist heat and stop weeping in sauces and fillings; behaves like other modified starches and is digested as starch.

### E1452 - Starch aluminium octenyl succinate (Other)
Aluminium-starch carrier for vitamin and flavour blends.
Where you see it. Encapsulates flavours and fat-soluble vitamins in dry mixes.
What the research says. Aluminium builds up in bone and tissues with regular intake.
Sources: JECFA (1982) · EU (2011)

### E1505 - Triethyl citrate (Other)
Citric acid combined with ethanol.
Where you see it. Foam stabiliser in egg-white powder; carrier for flavours.
Why it's used. Stabilises whipped egg-white foams in meringue powders; flavour-carrier solvent. Breaks down in the gut to citrate and ethanol.

### E1517 - Glyceryl diacetate (Other)
Glycerol with two acetate groups.
Where you see it. Solvent and carrier for flavours and colours.
Why it's used. Glycerin-acetate solvent and moisture-keeper for flavours and colours. Breaks down in the gut to glycerin and acetate.

### E1518 - Glyceryl triacetate (Other)
Triacetin; glycerol with three acetate groups.
Where you see it. Carrier solvent for flavours and humectant in chewing gum.
Why it's used. Triacetin, fully-acetylated glycerol. Long-standing humectant and solvent for flavours; also bulks low-fat ice cream and acts as a plasticiser in chewing-gum base.

### E1519 - Benzyl alcohol (Flavour enhancer)
Aromatic alcohol with a rose-like odour.
Where you see it. Solvent and carrier for flavours and colours.
Why it's used. Solvent and carrier for flavour compounds. Dissolves water- and oil-soluble molecules; stable in syrups. Naturally in some fruits; food use restricted to flavourings.

### E1520 - Propylene glycol (Other)
Viscous, slightly sweet humectant.
Where you see it. Keeps foods moist and disperses flavours in cake mixes.
Why it's used. Cheap humectant and flavour solvent. Keeps cake icing soft, carries water-shy flavours like vanillin into syrups, prevents recrystallisation in fillings.

### E1521 - Polyethylene glycol (Other)
Synthetic polymer; PEG.
Where you see it. Glazing agent and carrier in supplements and confectionery coatings.
Why it's used. Unreactive polymer used as a glaze, anti-foam and carrier for sweeteners. Largely unabsorbed at food doses.